A notodontid novelty: Theroa zethus caterpillars use behavior and anti-predator weaponry to disarm host plants.

Unlike most notodontids, Theroa zethus larvae feed on plants that emit copious latex when damaged. To determine how the larvae overcome this defense, we filmed final instars on poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima, then simulated their behaviors and tested how the behaviors individually and combined affect latex exudation. Larvae initially scraped the stem, petiole, or midrib with their mandibles, then secreted acid from their ventral eversible gland (VEG) onto the abraded surface. Scraping facilitated acid penetration by disrupting the waxy cuticle. As the acid softened tissues, the larvae used their mandibles to compress the plant repeatedly, thereby rupturing the latex canals. Scraping, acid application, and compression created withered furrows that greatly diminished latex exudation distal to the furrows where the larvae invariably fed. The VEG in notodontids ordinarily serves to deter predators; when attacked, larvae spray acid aimed directly at the assailant. Using HPLC, we documented that the VEG secretion of T. zethus contains 30% formic acid (6.53M) with small amounts of butyric acid (0.05M). When applied to poinsettia petioles, the acids caused a similar reduction in latex outflow as VEG secretion milked from larvae. VEG acid could disrupt latex canals in part by stimulating the normal acid-growth mechanism employed by plants to loosen walls for cell elongation. Histological examination of cross sections in poinsettia midribs confirmed that cell walls within furrows were often highly distorted as expected if VEG acids weaken walls. Theroa zethus is the only notodontid caterpillar known to use mandibular scraping and VEG acid to disable plant defenses. However, we document that mandibular constriction of petioles occurs also in other notodontids including species that feed on hardwood trees. This capability may represent a pre-adaptation that facilitated the host shift in the Theroa lineage onto latex-bearing plants by enabling larvae to deactivate laticifers with minimal latex contact.

Assessing the Medication Adherence App Marketplace From the Health Professional and Consumer Vantage Points.

BACKGROUND: Nonadherence produces considerable health consequences and economic burden to patients and payers. One approach to improve medication nonadherence that has gained interest in recent years is the use of smartphone adherence apps. The development of smartphone adherence apps has increased rapidly since 2012; however, literature evaluating the clinical app and effectiveness of smartphone adherence apps to improve medication adherence is generally lacking. OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to (1) provide an updated evaluation and comparison of medication adherence apps in the marketplace by assessing the features, functionality, and health literacy (HL) of the highest-ranking adherence apps and (2) indirectly measure the validity of our rating methodology by determining the relationship between our app evaluations and Web-based consumer ratings. METHODS: Two independent reviewers assessed the features and functionality using a 4-domain rating tool of all adherence apps identified based on developer claims. The same reviewers downloaded and tested the 100 highest-ranking apps including an additional domain for assessment of HL. Pearson product correlations were estimated between the consumer ratings and our domain and total scores. RESULTS: A total of 824 adherence apps were identified; of these, 645 unique apps were evaluated after applying exclusion criteria. The median initial score based on descriptions was 14 (max of 68; range 0-60). As a result, 100 of the highest-scoring unique apps underwent user testing. The median overall user-tested score was 31.5 (max of 73; range 0-60). The majority of the user tested the adherence apps that underwent user testing reported a consumer rating score in their respective online marketplace. The mean consumer rating was 3.93 (SD 0.84). The total user-tested score was positively correlated with consumer ratings (r=.1969, P=.04). CONCLUSIONS: More adherence apps are available in the Web-based marketplace, and the quality of these apps varies considerably. Consumer ratings are positively but weakly correlated with user-testing scores suggesting that our rating tool has some validity but that consumers and clinicians may assess adherence app quality differently.