Fluorescence, absorption and electron spin resonance study of bacteriochlorin a incorporation into membrane models.

Analysis of the bacteriochlorin a absorption spectra suggests the existence of a monomer-dimer equilibrium, particularly intense in phosphate buffer and favored by a decrease of the pH. The dye in methanolic solution is predominantly in monomeric form. Fluorescence and electron spin resonance nitroxide spin labeling measurements indicate that incorporation into the lipid phase of dimyristoyl-L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine liposomes induces dye monomerization. Moreover, the molecules are bound in the external surface of the vesicles and a complete incorporation is ensured by a lipid-to-dye ratio greater than 125.

Electron spin resonance evidence of the generation of superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen during the photohemolysis of human erythrocytes with bacteriochlorin a.

Photodynamic therapy with bacteriochlorin a (BCA) as sensitizer induces damage to red blood cells in vivo. To assess the extent of the contributuion of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and to determine a possible reaction mechanism, competition experiments with assorted ROS quenching or/and enhancing agents were performed in human erythrocytes as model system and in phosphate buffer. In the erythrocyte experiments, a 2% suspension was incubated with BCA for 1 h, washed with phosphate-buffered saline, resuspended and subsequently illuminated with a diode laser using a fluence rate of 2.65 mW/cm2. Potassium leakage and hemolysis were light and BCA dose dependent. Adding tryptophan (3.3 mM), azide (1 mM) or histidine (10 mM) to the erythrocyte suspension before illumination delayed the onset of K-leakage and hemolysis suggesting a type II mechanism. The D2O did not affect K-leakage nor photohemolysis. Adding mannitol (13.3 mM) or glycerol (300 nM) also caused a delay in the onset of K-leakage and hemolysis, suggesting the involvement of radicals. In phosphate buffer experiments, it was shown using electron spin resonance (ESR) associated with spin-trapping techniques that BCA is able to generate O2-. and OH. radicals without production of aqueous electron. Visible or UV irradiation of the dye in the presence of the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) gave an ESR spectrum characteristic of the DMPO-hydroxyl radical spin adduct DMPO-OH. Addition of ethanol or sodium formate produced supplementary hyperfine splittings due to the respective CH3CHOH. and CO2-. radical adducts, indicating the presence of free OH.. Production of DMPO-OH was partly inhibited by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and desferrioxamine, suggesting that the iron-catalyzed decomposition of H2O2 was partly involved in the formation of one part of the observed OH.. The complementary inhibition of DMPO-OH production by azide and 9,10-anthracenedipropionic acid (ADPA) was consistent with 1O2 production by BCA followed by reaction of 1O2 with DMPO and decay of the intermediate complex to form DMPO-OH and free OH.. All our results seem to indicate that BCA is a 50%/50% type 1/type 2 sensitizer in buffered aqueous solutions and confirmed that the dye-induced hemolysis of erythrocytes was cell caused by a mixed type 1/type 2 mechanism.

Destruction of stearic acid nitroxyl radicals mediated by photoexcited merocyanine 540 in liposomal and micellar systems.

Fatty acid spin labels have been included into liposomes and micelles, in order to study the photochemical behavior of merocyanine 540 toward nitroxyl radicals situated at various depths in the bilayer or the surfactant layer. Visible illumination of the dye, either free in ethanol or bound to liposomes or micelles, leads to the reduction of the electron spin resonance signal of the label. The efficiency of the interaction between merocyanine 540 and spin labels depends on the depth at which the nitroxyl moiety is localized in the micelle or vesicle. Fluorescence measurements indicate that the first excited singlet state of merocyanine 540 is not directly implicated in the reaction mechanism. Flash photolysis experiments conducted in aqueous solutions of hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide micelles show that the presence of nitroxyl radical decreases the rate constant of triplet decay in a concentration-dependent fashion. The corresponding quenching rate constant (kq) is determined for the different spin labels. The kq values and the reduction rates of ESR signal show the same dependence on the localization of the nitroxyl moiety in the micelles.

Singlet oxygen quantum yield of sulfur and selenium analogs of psoralen.

The quantum yield of singlet oxygen production by eight newly synthesized sulfur and selenium analogs of psoralen irradiated with UV-A (366 nm) has been determined in CCl4 with the help of the steady state luminescence technique. The new psoralen derivatives are generally better singlet oxygen producers than psoralen itself. In particular, the replacement of selenophene for furan and/or of thiopyrone for pyrone induces an important enhancement of the singlet oxygen quantum yield.

Photosensitized production of singlet oxygen by merocyanine 540 bound to liposomes.

The production of singlet oxygen by merocyanine 540 was studied in dimyristoyl-phosphatidylcholine liposomes using two singlet oxygen probes: 9,10-anthracenedipropionic acid (water soluble) and 9,10-dimethylanthracene (liposoluble). Upper and lower limits of singlet oxygen quantum yield for bound merocyanine 540 were determined to be 0.055 and 0.015 respectively. The diffusion characteristics of singlet oxygen were examined using the isotropic enhancement effect of D2O and the inhibitory effect of sodium azide. It was shown that 1O2 spent more than 87% of its lifetime in a vesicle environment. When the singlet-reacting substrate and the dye were both located in the bilayer, approximately 40% of the singlet oxygen remained in the liposomes where it was originally generated.

Activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by oxidative stress.

An important aspect of the infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) type 1 is its clinical latency, suggesting that the virus itself or the provirus may remain latent for extended periods of time after primary infection. Certain heterologous viral proteins or chemical and physical agents are able to reactivate latent virus. Since a common denominator shared by these agents is the ability to cause stress response in cells, we have examined the effects of oxidative stress mediated by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on HIV-1 latently infected promonocytic cell line termed U1. After exposure to H2O2 in concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 2 mM, the viability of the U1 cells decreased during 24 h before recovery. At 24 h post stress, the U1 cells began to express virus as assessed by elevated reverse transcriptase activities in culture supernatants. Immunofluorescence carried out on stressed U1 cells using anti-HIV-1 polyclonal antibodies showed that H2O2 leads to HIV-1 gene expression activation, but not to a release of viral particles from damaged cells. Additionally, using a HeLa cell line containing integrated the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) gene under the control of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR), we have shown that oxidative stress mediated by H2O2 allows transactivation of the viral LTR revealed by intracellular CAT activity. A stimulation factor of around 4 of CAT activity can be reached when these cells are treated with 0.5 mM H2O2.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Triplet yield of merocyanine 540 in water is wavelength dependent.

Monomers and aggregates of Merocyanine 540 (MC540) in water are able to photoisomerize. The shape of the photoisomer absorption spectrum is very similar to that of the ground state. Triplet state of MC540 in water has been produced by energy transfer from triplet anthracene and displays a broad absorption spectrum between 600 and 700 nm. The triplet state may also be produced by direct excitation of MC540 with UV light. However, when the dye is excited by visible light, no triplet state absorbance in the red could be detected so that the triplet yield of MC540 in water seems to be excitation wavelength dependent.

Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of extracellular generated singlet oxygen in human lymphocytes in vitro.

The induction of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCE) together with the proliferation rate index (PRI) were studied in human lymphocytes in vitro after treatment with singlet oxygen. When produced outside the cells, singlet oxygen can increase the duration of the cellular cycle as measured by an enhancement of the differences between the proliferation rate indexes of the control and the treated cells. A dose-dependent increase in the SCE rate per chromosome was also detected after contact between the singlet oxygen and lymphocytes.

Mutagenesis induced by site specifically placed 4'-hydroxymethyl-4,5',8-trimethylpsoralen adducts.

Closed circular double stranded M13mp19 DNA containing a site-specifically placed HMT (4'-hydroxymethyl-4-5'-8-trimethylpsoralen) monoadduct or crosslink was synthesized in vitro. The damaged DNA were scored for loss of infectivity by transfection into repair proficient or deficient E. coli and into SOS induced E. coli. Mutant phages were detected by the loss of alpha-complementation between the viral and the host Lac Z genes or by the acquisition of resistance to kpn I digestion. Our results indicate that HMT mutagenesis is targeted and that deletion or transversion of the modified thymidine is the predominant sequence change elicited by a monoadduct or a crosslink. Transfection of the monoadducted DNA into a Uvr A deficient strain did not change the mutation pattern but did increase the respective mutation frequencies. Transfection of the crosslinked DNA into a SOS induced host resulted in the appearence of other types of mutations attributable to an increase in both targeted and untargeted mutations.

Singlet oxygen production and photoisomerization: two competitive processes for merocyanine 540 irradiated with visible light.

The quantum yields of singlet oxygen production by merocyanine 540 have been measured during visible light irradiation performed in methanol and ethanol. These appear to be one hundred times smaller than the quantum yield for rose bengal measured under the same conditions. Flash photolysis experiments demonstrate the ability of merocyanine 540 molecules to isomerize under visible light irradiation: the isomerization quantum yields are about 0.65 in both ethanol and methanol. This information combined with the fluorescence quantum yield data account for the low values for singlet oxygen production.

Alkaline labilization of DNA photosensitized by promazine derivatives.

Superhelical pBR322 DNA has been photosensitized in the presence of various promazine derivatives. Agarose gel electrophoresis of the photosensitized DNA reveals that true single-strand breaks are induced during irradiation. Alkaline treatment of the photosensitized DNA with a subsequent alkaline agarose gel electrophoresis demonstrates that in addition to true single-strand breaks, these drugs can induce alkali-labile lesions. Although true single-strand breaks are induced randomly into a 5'-[32P]-end labeled pBR322 DNA fragments, the alkaline-labile alterations are located specifically at the level of guanine residues. A strong correlation seems to exist between the visualization of this labilization and the induction of a covalent photoadduct on guanine by the photosensitization mediated by PZ.

Singlet oxygen-induced mutations in M13 lacZ phage DNA.

The mutagenic consequences of damages to M13 mp19 RF DNA produced by singlet oxygen have been determined in a forward mutational system capable of detecting all classes of mutagenic events. When the damaged M13 mp19 RF DNA is used to transfect competent E. coli JM105 cells, a 16.6-fold increase in mutation frequency is observed at 5% survivors when measured as a loss of alpha-complementation. The enhanced mutagenicity is largely due to single-nucleotide substitutions, frameshift events and double-mutations. The single-nucleotide substitutions occur in the regulatory and in the structural part of the lacZ gene under the predominant form of a G:C to T:A transversion. The spectrum of mutations detected among the M13 lacZ phages surviving the singlet oxygen treatment is totally different from those appearing spontaneously. SOS induction mediated through u.v.-irradiation of bacteria leads to an increase of the mutation frequency in the M13 surviving to the singlet oxygen treatment. The mutation spectrum in this case is a mixture between those observed with the spontaneous mutants and the mutants induced by singlet oxygen. Lesions introduced in the M13 mp19 RF DNA can be partly repaired by the enzymatic machinery of the bacteria. It turns out that excision-repair and SOS repair are probably involved in the removal of these lesions by singlet oxygen.

Photosensitization of SV 40 DNA mediated by promazine derivatives and 4'-hydroxymethyl-4,5',8-trimethylpsoralen. Inhibition of the in vitro transcription.

In vitro transcription by E. coli RNA polymerase was carried out on SV40 DNA photoreacted with various promazine derivatives. Inhibition of the template activity was recorded with increasing irradiation times in the presence of promazine derivatives. Promazine covalent adducts on guanine did not terminate RNA synthesis and seemed to be bypassed by the enzyme. HMT (4'-hydroxymethyl-4,5',8-trimethylpsoralen) photoreaction with DNA was carried out under two conditions: irradiation with lambda greater than 395 nm favouring monoadduction on pyrimidine residues and irradiation at 360 nm inducing a maximum of interstrand diadducts. Both adducts were able to terminate RNA synthesis on the phototreated SV40 DNA and using the O-methyl-nucleotide sequencing procedure, the termination sites were precisely mapped. Monoadducts on the coding strand and cross-links induced termination two bases away from the covalent adduct, but monoadducts on the noncoding strand did not half RNA polymerase.

Singlet oxygen mutagenicity induced in the lac operon.

We have studied the specificity of singlet oxygen (1O2) mutagenesis in single-stranded DNA phage by analysing 1O2-induced mutations in the lac insert of the M13 mp 19 hybrid phage. 107 lac mutants were analysed showing mainly single-base substitutions with a total of 93% and 7% of 40-50 base deletion mutations. Most of the substitutions are G----T and C----A transversions with respectively 27 and 54% of the mutations. The replicative form of the M13 mp 19 DNA (RFDNA) was used as substrate for the 1O2 reactions, there are then two types of progeny phages DNA's. As guanine residues are the targets of the oxidation, it appears that both types of transversions are provided by one type of lesion: the guanine oxidised by 1O2 is read like a thymine by E. coli DNA polymerase-I.

DNA alterations photosensitized by tetracycline and some of its derivatives.

Bacteriophage M13 mp10 DNA were irradiated with near-UV light in the presence of tetracycline derivatives and primed with synthetic oligonucleotide to be used for DNA synthesis using Escherichia coli DNA polymerase. Chain terminations were observed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and mapped precisely. All the synthesis stops occurred before or at the level of guanine residues, showing that the photoreaction mediated by tetracycline derivatives led to a preferential alteration of guanine residues. These lesions were demonstrated to be induced in DNA through a pathway involving singlet oxygen. Tetracycline derivatives also photoinduced the breakage of the DNA sugar-phosphate backbone monitored by the conversion of supercoiled phi X174 DNA to a relaxed form. This lesion was shown to be initiated by hydroxyl radicals. The production of this free radical has been confirmed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spin trapping experiments using 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide as spin trap. In addition to the EPR signal due to OH radicals trapping another unassigned signal has been detected.

Biomolecular photoalterations mediated by phenothiazine derivatives.

This survey focuses on recent developments in the field of the ultraviolet photochemistry and photobiology of phenothiazine derivatives. One of the major alterations introduced by this kind of photosensitized reaction is a covalent addition of the photosensitizer or one of its photoproducts onto the macromolecular target. This reaction has been observed with soluble and membrane proteins, lipids and DNA. In the latter case, the addition occurs at the level of guanine residues and leads to inhibition of DNA replication.

Termini generated at the site of the DNA breakage mediated by photoexcited promazines.

Promazine derivatives are known to be able to photoinduce, in vitro, direct single-strand breaks into DNA (Decuyper et al., Biochem. Pharmac. 33, 4025-4031 (1984]. Using [32P]end labeled DNA fragments, it is demonstrated that this DNA breakage occurs almost regardless of the nucleotide sequence of the DNA. Using 3'-[32P]end or 5'-[32P]end labeled oligonucleotide and enzymatic digestion of the fragments generated, it is demonstrated that the termini generated at the site of the breakage are 5'-phosphate, 3'-phosphate and 3'-termini which are presumed to be 3'-phosphoglycolate. This is consistent with an attack of the sugar moeity of the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA by the reactives species generated upon near-u.v. irradiation of promazine derivatives.

Induction of breaks in deoxyribonucleic acid by photoexcited promazine derivatives.

Near-u.v. photoexcited promazine and three of its derivatives are shown to induce single-strand breaks in phi X174-DNA replicative form. The mechanisms of this DNA breakage depend upon the various photochemical properties of the promazine derivatives. Chlorpromazine is shown to act predominantly via the photodechlorination reaction both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The three other promazine derivatives (promazine, trifluopromazine and methoxypromazine) display two mechanisms for DNA breakage. One of them occurs through the cation radical, which is formed during near-u.v. irradiation of promazine derivatives. The second mechanism is demonstrated to act via an hydroxyl radical-dependent pathway. Acepromazine is without photoactivated action. EPR-spin-trapping studies of irradiated mixtures, containing the drugs and 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (as spin trap), suggest the production of superoxide radical by photoexcited promazines. When DNA is present in the irradiation mixture, this superoxide radical is converted into hydroxyl radical probably via a Haber Weiss-type reaction, catalysed by DNA-iron complexes.

Termination sites of the in vitro DNA synthesis on single-stranded DNA photosensitized by promazines.

Bacteriophage phi X174 and M13 mp9 single-stranded DNA molecules were primed either with restriction fragments or synthetic primers and irradiated with near UV light in the presence of promazine derivatives. These DNAs were used as template for in vitro complementary chain synthesis by Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I large fragment. Chain terminations were observed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the synthesis products and localized by comparison with a standard dideoxy sequencing pattern. More than 90% of the chain terminations were mapped exactly one nucleotide before a guanine residue. In addition, photoreaction was shown to occur more predominantly with guanine residues localized in single-stranded parts of the genome. The same guanine residues could also be damaged when the reaction was performed, in the dark, in the presence of the artificially generated promazine cation radicals. Using the BamHI-SmaI adaptor (5'GATCCCCGGG-3'), it was shown that the guanine alteration was a covalent addition of the promazine, or of a cation radical photodegradation product, on the guanine moiety. Kinetics of chlorpromazine photoaddition on single-stranded and double-stranded DNAs were determined.