The network structure of psychopathological and resilient responses to the pandemic: A multicountry general population study of depression and anxiety.

Commonly identified patterns of psychological distress in response to adverse events are characterized by resilience (i.e., little to no distress), delayed (i.e., distress that increases over time), recovery (i.e., distress followed by a gradual decrease over time), and sustained (i.e., distress remaining stable over time). This study aimed to examine these response patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anxiety and depressive symptom data collected across four European countries over the first year of the pandemic were analyzed (N = 3,594). Participants were first categorized into groups based on the four described patterns. Network connectivity and symptom clustering were then estimated for each group and compared. Two thirds (63.6%) of the sample displayed a resilience pattern. The sustained distress network (16.3%) showed higher connectivity than the recovery network (10.0%) group, p = .031; however, the resilient network showed higher connectivity than the delayed network (10.1%) group, p = .016. Regarding symptom clustering, more clusters emerged in the recovery network (i.e., three) than the sustained network (i.e., two). These results replicate findings that resilience was the most common mental health pattern over the first pandemic year. Moreover, they suggest that high network connectivity may be indicative of a stable mental health response over time, whereas fewer clusters may be indicative of a sustained distress pattern. Although exploratory, the network perspective provides a useful tool for examining the complexity of psychological responses to adverse events and, if replicated, could be useful in identifying indicators of protection against or vulnerability to future psychological distress.

The Effect of Partial Sleep Deprivation and Time-on-Task on Young Drivers' Subjective and Objective Sleepiness.

Despite sleepiness being considered one of the main factors contributing to road crashes, and even though extensive efforts have been made in the identification of techniques able to detect it, the assessment of fitness-to-drive regarding driving fatigue and sleepiness is still an open issue. In the literature on driver sleepiness, both vehicle-based measures and behavioral measures are used. Concerning the former, the one considered more reliable is the Standard Deviation of Lateral Position (SDLP) while the PERcent of eye CLOSure over a defined period of time (PERCLOS) seems to be the most informative behavioral measure. In the present study, using a within-subject design, we assessed the effect of a single night of partial sleep deprivation (PSD, less than 5 h sleeping time) compared to a control condition (full night of sleep, 8 h sleeping time) on SDLP and PERCLOS, in young adults driving in a dynamic car simulator. Results show that time-on-task and PSD affect both subjective and objective sleepiness measures. Moreover, our data confirm that both objective and subjective sleepiness increase through a monotonous driving scenario. Considering that SDLP and PERCLOS were often used separately in studies on driver sleepiness and fatigue detection, the present results have potential implications for fitness-to-drive assessment in that they provide useful information allowing to combine the advantages of the two measures for drowsiness detection while driving.

The role of the COVID-19 impersonal threat strengthening the associations of right-wing attitudes, nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiments.

Literature showed that the link between right-wing attitudes and ethnocentric attitudes gets stronger under existential threats, but the role exerted by an impersonal threat - as COVID-19 - on right-wing attitudes is still unclear. This study aimed to highlight the role of anxiety exerted by the impersonal COVID-19 threat on the relationship between right-wing attitudes and ethnocentric attitudes, as nationalism and anti-immigrants' sentiments. As part of an international project to evaluate the impact of COVID-19, this study administered an online survey to a representative sample (n 1038). The anxiety generated by an impersonal threat as COVID-19 - thus not exerted by any outgroup - can moderate the relationship among personal Right-Wing Authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and ethnocentric attitudes. This is the first study demonstrating that existential threat is effective also when exerted by an impersonal agent (as COVID-19) rather than by an outgroup. Second, these findings disclose useful implications for preventive psychological interventions and for social policy makers. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04305-w.

The mediating role of scientifical-medical satisfaction between COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and vaccine confidence: a two-waves structural equation model.

Vaccine confidence has emerged as one of the most relevant psychological factors implied in the worldwide affecting the fight against COVID-19-as well as public trust in doctors, medicine, and science. Indeed, the vaccine confidence is crucial to maximize the trust in vaccines and their use for prevention, with several implications for public health. This study aimed to analyse the relationships among between vaccine confidence, conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19, and satisfaction with science and medicine in handling the COVID-19 pandemic. A longitudinal observational survey was administered to a convenience sample (n = 544; mean age 52.76 y.o., SD = 15.11; females 46.69%) from the Italian general population. A two-waves mediation model-a structural equation model technique-was used. The survey was part of a larger international project ( https://osf.io/qy65b/ ). The model highlighted that the conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 had a negative effect on the satisfaction with medicine and science (ß = - 0.13, se = 0.03, p < .001). The latter, in turn, had a positive effect on vaccine confidence (ß = 0.10, se = .05, p < .001). Interestingly, the effect of conspiracy beliefs on vaccine confidence was completely mediated by the scientifical-medical satisfaction (ß = - 0.02, se = 0.01, p < .05). These results highlight how the scientifical-medical satisfaction can fully mediate the relationship between conspiracy beliefs about COVID-19 and vaccine confidence. These findings about vaccine hesitancy and confidence and disclose have implications for psychological and social interventions that could promote vaccine confidence by targeting the satisfaction with science and medicine.

Affective Risk Associated With Menstrual Cycle Symptom Change.

In the present study we test whether cyclical changes in affective symptoms of the menstrual cycle are associated with higher mean levels of those same symptoms. Using prospective daily reports across two full menstrual cycles, from two samples of female University students (n = 213; n = 163), we applied both quartic polynomial regressions and cosine regressions to model cyclical change in symptoms, and to test for mean-level differences in symptoms across the resulting trajectory patterns. Counter to prior findings, but consistent with theoretical expectations, these results show that females who experience menstrual cycle-related changes in affect (whether a perimenstrual or mid-cycle increase) are at risk for higher average levels of affective symptoms. These results suggest that the mid-cycle group should be recognized as a target for future research that is associated with increased risk for chronic negative affective symptoms.

Assessment of perceived support in the context of emergency: Development and validation of the psycho-social support scale.

In research and clinical contexts, it is important to briefly evaluate perceived Psychological and Social Support (PSS) to plan psychological interventions and allocate efforts and resources. However, an appropriate brief assessment tool for PSS was lacking. This study aimed at developing a brief and accurate scale to specifically measure PSS in clinical and emergency contexts, with specific, relevant, targeted, and irredundant items. Experienced clinicians developed the perceived Psycho-Social Support Scale (PSSS) and administered it to a clinical sample (N = 112) seeking psychological help during the COVID-19 emergency. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis examined the PSSS internal structure, and a Multiple Indicator and Multiple Causes model investigated its association with the number of sessions and emotional symptoms. The PSSS showed good psychometric properties and the Confirmatory Factor Analysis provided acceptable fit indexes for a unidimensional structure. The Multiple Indicators and Multiple Causes revealed that more sessions and emotional symptoms were associated with lower PSSS scores. The PSSS is a reliable brief tool to measure PS and could be useful to individualize treatments (i.e., number of sessions) to efficiently allocate efforts and resources in clinical contexts and emergencies (e.g., earthquake, COVID-19 pandemic). Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-03344-z.

Measurement invariance of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) across four European countries during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) are self-report measures of major depressive disorder and generalised anxiety disorder. The primary aim of this study was to test for differential item functioning (DIF) on the PHQ-9 and GAD-7 items based on age, sex (males and females), and country. METHOD: Data from nationally representative surveys in UK, Ireland, Spain, and Italy (combined N = 6,054) were used to fit confirmatory factor analytic and multiple-indictor multiple-causes models. RESULTS: Spain and Italy had higher latent variable means than the UK and Ireland for both anxiety and depression, but there was no evidence for differential items functioning. CONCLUSIONS: The PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores were found to be unidimensional, reliable, and largely free of DIF in data from four large nationally representative samples of the general population in the UK, Ireland, Italy and Spain.

On the Implementation of Computerized Adaptive Observations for Psychological Assessment.

The use of observational tools in psychological assessment has decreased in recent years, mainly due to its personnel and time costs, and researchers have not explored methodological innovations like adaptive algorithms in observational assessment. In the present study, we introduce the behavior-driven observation procedure to develop, test, and implement observational adaptive instruments. In Study 1, we use a preexisting observational checklist to evaluate nonverbal behaviors related to psychotic symptoms and to specify the adaptive algorithm's model. We fit the model to observational data collected from 114 participants. The results support the model's goodness of fit. In Study 2, we use the estimated model parameters to calibrate the adaptive procedure and test the algorithm for accuracy and efficiency in adaptively reconstructing 58 nonadaptively collected response patterns. The results show the algorithm's good accuracy and efficiency, with a 40% average reduction in the number of administered items. In Study 3, we used real raters to test the adaptive checklist built with behavior-driven observation. The results indicate adequate intrarater agreement and good consistency of the observed response patterns. In conclusion, the results support the possibility of using behavior-driven observation to create accurate and affordable (in terms of resources) observational assessment tools.

Factors impacting resilience as a result of exposure to COVID-19: The ecological resilience model.

Despite the severe psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, some individuals do not develop high levels of psychological distress and can be termed resilient. Using the ecological resilience model, we examined factors promoting or hindering resilience in the COVID-19 pandemic. Of the 1034 participants (49.9±16.2 years; females 51.2%) from Italian general population, 70% displayed resilient outcomes and 30% reported moderate-severe anxiety and/or depression. A binary regression model revealed that factors promoting resilience were mostly psychological (e.g., trait resilience, conscientiousness) together with social distancing. Conversely, factors hindering resilience included COVID-19-anxiety, COVID-19-related PTSD symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty, loneliness, living with children, higher education, and living in regions where the virus was starting to spread. In conclusion, the ecological resilience model in the COVID-19 pandemic explained 64% of the variance and identified factors promoting or hindering resilient outcomes. Critically, these findings can inform psychological interventions supporting individuals by strengthening factors associated with resilience.

The Relevance of Assessing Subjective Experiences of Skin Toxicity During Adjuvant Radiotherapy for Breast Cancer.

PURPOSE: Radiodermatitis is likely to be an inevitable side effect of radiotherapy (RT) but experiencing pain relief during RT might contribute making treatment more acceptable and less impairing. The current study aimed to assess the subjective perceptions and experiences of skin toxicity in a sample of women undergoing adjuvant RT for breast cancer. METHODS: Eighty patients were randomly assigned to one out of two groups: treatment (i.e., a newly developed topical product) and control (i.e., standard-of-care). Patients underwent adjuvant RT for 3 weeks. Clinical assessment of radiodermatitis and self-reported levels of pain, relief, and perceptions of treatment response were collected at the initiation of RT (T1), during RT (T2 and T3), and 2 weeks after treatment completion (T4). To assess changes in skin-related QoL, a subgroup of patients completed the Padua Skin-Related QoL questionnaire at T0 (before the initiation of RT) and at T4. RESULTS: A comparable timing of onset and severity of radiodermatitis during treatment was observed in both groups. The treatment group reported lower levels of pain and higher levels of relief compared to the control group when skin toxicity was at its highest levels (T2 and T3). Independent of the group, levels of perceived improvements in clinical status increased over time, whereas skin-related QoL worsened from T0 to T4. CONCLUSION: Current findings outline the relevance of integrating clinical evaluations of radiodermatitis with patients' subjective experiences of skin toxicity in interventional studies. Moreover, they provide preliminary evidence about the soothing effect of a newly developed topical product, thus supporting its usefulness of as a supportive care.

Visual Feedback Effectiveness in Reducing Over Speeding of Moped-Riders.

The use of assistance systems aimed at reducing road fatalities is spreading, especially for car drivers, but less effort has been devoted to developing and testing similar systems for powered two-wheelers (PTWs). Considering that over speeding represents one of the main causal factors in road crashes and that riders are more vulnerable than drivers, in the present study we investigated the effectiveness of an assistance system which signaled speed limit violations during a simulated moped-driving task, in optimal and poor visibility conditions. Participants performed four conditions of simulated riding: one baseline condition without Feedback, one Fog condition in which visual feedback was provided so as to indicate to the participants when a speed limit (lower than that indicated by the traffic signals) was exceeded, and two post-Feedback conditions with and without Fog, respectively, in which no feedback was delivered. Results showed that participants make fewer speeding violations when the feedback is not provided, after 1 month, and regardless of the visibility condition. Finally, the feedback has been proven effective in reducing speed violations in participants with an aggressive riding style, as measured in the baseline session.

Exploring Diener's Multidimensional Conceptualization of Well-Being Through Network Psychometrics.

Previous research has addressed the study of the well-being structure focusing on the separability among hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions by means of latent variable approaches. Diener's tripartite model of Subjective Well-Being has often been identified with hedonic well-being, while flourishing (i.e., positive functioning) has been classified as a proxy for eudaimonic well-being. Instead of pursuing a theory-driven approach, the structure of well-being dimensions can be retrieved by means of network psychometrics that is a highly informative, data-driven approach that allows the model structure to spontaneously emerge from the relationships among indicators. Furthermore, we propose a strength centrality decomposition that is able to summarize the influence of a specific indicator within its dimension and between the other dimensions. Contrary to the theoretical conjecture that the separability among well-being dimensions can be grounded on a hedonic and eudaimonic distinction, our results point to a categorization of the Diener's well-being indicators based on the type of information they convey, that is global evaluation of life satisfaction, positive and negative affective experiences, and perceived positive functioning in life.

The Italian COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (IT C19PRC): General Overview and Replication of the UK Study.

The COVID-19 pandemic represents a major stressor for the psychological health of people worldwide. In the UK, the COVID19-Psychological Research Consortium Study (C19PRC) launched to evaluate the psychological impact of COVID-19 in the general population and its implications. The project was then extended to Italy and several other countries. This article provides an overview of the Italian C19PRC study and its replication of two specific findings from the UK C19PRC. In the first part, the relationship between anxiety and somatic symptomatology is examined. In the second part, we analyze the association between several factors and psychological health outcomes: depression/anxiety, traumatic stress, COVID-19 anxiety. In line with the study conducted in the UK, an online survey was administered to the adult Italian general population. The sample included 1038 respondents (age, mean = 49.94, SD = 16.14, 51.15% females) taken from four regions: Lombardia, Veneto, Lazio, and Campania. The relationship between predictors and outcomes was evaluated by means of logistic regression models. Somatic indices showed a positive association with anxiety, worse somatic symptoms were associated with mourning a loss of a beloved one due to COVID-19 and with precarious health conditions. Females showed a higher incidence of psychological issues. No differences in anxiety, depression, and traumatic stress were found across regions but the Campania region showed the most severe somatic symptomatology. In the second analysis, the factors associated with more severe psychological outcomes (i.e., anxiety and/or depression, traumatic stress, and COVID-19 related anxiety) were younger age, the presence of minors in the household, traumatic stressors, and precarious health conditions. No differences across regions emerged. The Italian results correspond to the UK findings for anxiety, depression, and traumatic stress. Both in the UK and Italy, the factors associated with worse psychological health were gender (female), younger age, having children, pre-existing health issues (both for oneself or someone close), and the moderate/high perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 within one month. In Italy, unlike the UK, lower household income and having (had) COVID-19 were not associated with poorer mental health. The psychological impact of COVID-19 can last for months; future research should explore all aspects of the psychological burden of COVID-19 in order to implement psychological interventions and promote psychological health.

The Psychosocial Assessment of Transplant Candidates: Inter-Rater Reliability and Predictive Value of the Italian Stanford Integrated Psychosocial Assessment for Transplantation (SIPAT).

BACKGROUND: The Stanford Integrated Psychosocial Assessment for Transplantation (SIPAT) is a comprehensive instrument developed to accurately assess the main pretransplant psychosocial risk factors that may impact transplant outcomes. OBJECTIVE: As neither established assessment procedures nor standardized tools designed to perform pretransplant psychosocial evaluation are currently available in Italy, the present study was designed to develop and preliminarily validate the Italian version of the SIPAT. METHODS: First, our team developed the Italian version of the SIPAT, following standard forward-back translation procedures. Then, the Italian version of the SIPAT was retrospectively and blindly applied to 118 randomly selected transplant cases (40 heart, 40 lung, and 38 liver) by 2 independent examiners. Information about the patients' final transplant listing recommendation (i.e., listing vs. deferral) was independently collected from the respective transplant teams. RESULTS: The inter-rater reliability of the Italian version of the SIPAT scores was substantial (Cohen's kappa = 0.77; P < 0.001). Moreover, the predictive value of the SIPAT ratings on the final transplant listing recommendation (i.e., listing vs. deferral) for each examiner was significant (both P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Current findings suggest that SIPAT is a promising and reliable instrument in its Italian version. Given these excellent psychometric characteristics, the use of the SIPAT as part of the pretransplant psychosocial evaluation in Italian medical settings is highly encouraged.

Enhancement of unsafe behaviors in simulated moped-riding performance under the influence of low dose of alcohol.

The effects of low levels of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) on motorcyclist performance are still not fully comprehended. The great majority of the studies are, in fact, focused on car driving. So far, it is known that even BAC levels below the legal limit negatively affect riding motor skills correlated with crash rate. In the present study, we used a moped riding simulator to investigate the effects of low alcohol dosages (under the limits established in Italy, and in most European countries) on the defensive riding ability of light drinkers, particularly focusing on the degree of danger characterizing their riding performance. We recruited 24 participants through a double-blind, random distribution, balanced, cross-over design. We administered moderate amounts of alcohol to participants during two sessions of moped riding simulation. The results showed that even though BAC levels were always below (mean value: 0.03 g/dL) the limit allowed by Italian traffic law (0.05 g/dL), alcohol induced a reduction in safe riding behaviors, as indicated by the greater amount of hazardous scenes faced with dangerous riding behaviors when participants were under the influence of alcohol than when they were sober. Moreover, low BAC levels had a greater detrimental influence when a certain amount of learning had already been achieved by the participants (i.e., in the last experimental session). The results suggest that the effect of a low dose of alcohol interacts with participants' self-confidence.

Development and psychometric properties of a short form of the Illness Denial Questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: Coping with chronic illness can be overwhelming for patients and caregivers, and may be inhibited by the denial mechanism, and therefore, denial represents a critical issue for health professionals. Assessing illness denial is far from easy, and brief tools suitable for medical settings are lacking. In this paper, the development of a short form of the Illness Denial Questionnaire (IDQ) for patients and caregivers is presented. METHODS: In study 1, the IDQ was administered to 118 patients and 83 caregivers to examine the internal structure of denial; then the properties of the items (DIF, fit, and difficulty) were evaluated according to the Rasch model in order to select the best items for the Illness Denial Questionnaire-Short Form (IDQ-SF). Study 2 included 202 participants (113 patients and 89 caregivers). The internal structure of the IDQ-SF was tested via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Reliability and concurrent validity were also studied using the Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire-Reduced Form (AD-R). RESULTS: The CFA showed a two-factor structure encompassing "Denial of negative emotions" and "Resistance to change". Results of the Rasch analyses led to the selection of 4 items for each dimension. The resulting IDQ-SF (8 items) showed a two-factor structure as well as good reliability and concurrent validity with AD-R. CONCLUSION: The IDQ-SF represents a valid tool for quickly evaluating the core of illness denial in patients and caregivers. This brief and easily administrable questionnaire allows health professionals to outline the presence and severity of illness denial in order to set individually tailored interventions.

Neurocognitive and behavioral markers in DUI recidivists.

Objective: Driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol recidivism may be a risk-taking behavior motivated by a change in decision-making capacity. Decision-making capacity has been investigated by event-related potentials (ERPs) acquisition and specifically by analyzing feedback-related negativity (FRN) reflecting the activity of medial prefrontal cortex. Thus, the aim of our study was to test the role of FRN as a possible neurophysiological marker of underestimation of risk associated with DUI recidivism to provide novel insights into the influence of neurocognitive aspects of driving ability.Methods: The research was structured as a case-control study. The total cohort (30 Italian male subjects) was divided into 2 groups, according to positive or negative history of DUI recidivism. The protocol included informed consent collection, medical history and clinical examination, ERP registration, and sensation-seeking scale administration. ERPs were acquired during a gambling task. The data were analyzed with 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) repeated measures. Statistical analyses were conducted using R to test the participants' risk behaviors. A multivariate ANOVA was run to compare the personality traits of the groups. ANOVAs and planned comparisons were performed with StatSoft software.Results: FRN amplitude analyses showed that the interaction Reward Magnitude × Valence (large vs. small × gains vs. losses) was significant for recidivists (F(1,13) = 11.75, P < .01) but not for controls (F(1,14) = 0.04, P = .84). The results of the logistic generalized linear models analysis showed that the 2 groups differed in risk-taking behavior (z = -3.65; P < .001) with an average of 70 risky choices for recidivists and 63 for controls. Both groups were homogeneous for personality traits.Conclusions: The FRN and gambling task results suggest that DUI recidivists seemed attracted by the prospect of a large reward and appeared unable to recognize small losses read as wins These results, if confirmed in a larger sample, could indicate the usefulness of ERP analysis in clinical and forensic evaluation of DUI subjects.

Interventions for Psychological Health of Stroke Caregivers: A Systematic Review.

Background: The increasing number of stroke patients (SPs) requires informal caregivers to bear a high burden of responsibilities and heavy (di)stress. Moreover, these issues could lead to the development of serious psychological problems (e.g., depressive and/or anxious) that in turn could give rise to poor health-related quality of life outcomes. However, although the value of psychological interventions has been widely recognized for SPs, the scientific literature lacks an updated synthesis of interventions addressing the psychological health of their caregivers. Aim: The aim of this review is to summarize the interventions for the psychological health of stroke caregivers and provide a resume of literature-based evidence of their efficacy. Method: A literature review from 2005 to date was conducted in three online databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Eligibility criteria for studies were (A) English language, (B) caregivers and patients aged 18 years or above, (C) SP's caregiver beneficiating of a specific intervention, and (D) outcome measures addressing depressive and/or anxiety symptomology, quality of life, well-being, or burden. Results: Across the selected 45 studies, substantial differences are observable in three main categories: (a) type of intervention (b) techniques, and (c) operators. Interventions' advantages and results are discussed. Overall, studies using psychological techniques, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, coping skill-training, and problem-solving therapy, showed their usefulness and efficacy in reducing the caregivers' depressive and anxious symptoms, and burden. Interventions led by psychologists and tailored to meet caregivers' specific needs showed more positive outcomes. Conclusion: This review underlines the usefulness of psychological interventions aimed at reducing the psychological burden, such as anxious and depressive symptomatology, of SPs' informal caregivers. Hence, psychological interventions for caregivers should be integrated as part of the stroke rehabilitation process to improve informal caregivers' and patients' quality of life and well-being.

Influence of visually perceived shape and brightness on perceived size, expected weight, and perceived weight of 3D objects.

In the size-weight illusion, when two objects of identical weight but different volume are lifted, the smaller object is typically perceived to weigh more than the larger object. A well-known explanation for this and other weight illusions is provided by the hypothesis that perceived weight results from the contrast between actual and expected weight. More recently, it has been suggested that an object's size may exert a direct and automatic effect on its perceived weight, independently of expected weight. Here we test these two hypotheses by exploring two illusions that have been known for a long time but have remained relatively underexplored, namely the shape-weight and brightness-weight illusions. Specifically, we measured the influence of visually perceived shape and brightness on the perceived size, the expected weight, and the perceived weight of 3D plastic objects. A numerical rating task was used in Experiment 1, and a paired comparison task was used in Experiment 2. The results showed that spheres were perceived to be heavier than tetrahedrons and cubes, and cubes were perceived to be heavier than tetrahedrons. We did not find any consistent relationship between brightness and perceived weight. A systematic comparison between perceived size, expected weight, and perceived weight showed that the visual shape-weight and brightness-weight illusions are partially inconsistent with the hypothesis that perceived weight results from the contrast between actual and expected weight and with the hypothesis that perceived weight results from the contrast between actual weight and perceived size. The results appear to suggest that there may be a dissociation between the processing of variables that contribute to the conscious experience of size, such as brightness and vertical height, and the processing of variables that contribute to perceived weight, such as surface area.

Measuring cognitive vulnerability to depression: Further evidence on the factorial and predictive validity of negative cognitive style.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Previous research has provided insufficient evidence on the factorial validity of the negative cognitive style questionnaires, which is a problem for the validity of the total score's computation. In Study 1, we focused on the relationship between internality and the other dimensions of negative cognitive style. In Study 2, we explored the predictive validity of negative cognitive style for negative interpretation bias. METHODS: In Study 1, 770 participants completed the Cognitive Style Questionnaire - Short Form (CSQ-SF). In Study 2, from a prescreening data collection (N = 300) we selected participants with low (N = 40) and high (N = 32) cognitive vulnerability to depression who were primed with negative mood induction and who completed a generative interpretation task. RESULTS: In Study 1, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that the best fitting model for the CSQ-SF was a bifactor model without the internality dimension. In Study 2, a CFA replicated the factorial structure of Study 1 and individuals with a high negative cognitive style exhibited a negative interpretation bias after controlling for depressive symptoms. LIMITATIONS: The university-age sample limited the generalizability of our results to different populations, and the lack of longitudinal data prevented us from discussing further implications on the relationship between the negative interpretation bias and negative cognitive style in predicting depression. CONCLUSIONS: Together, the results of our two studies support the construct validity of the CSQ-SF and recommend the use of a composite score of negative cognitive style without internality.