Alternative Geometries for 3D Bioprinting of Calcium Phosphate Cement as Bone Substitute.

In the literature, many studies have described the 3D printing of ceramic-based scaffolds (e.g., printing with calcium phosphate cement) in the form of linear structures with layer rotations of 90°, although no right angles can be found in the human body. Therefore, this work focuses on the adaptation of biological shapes, including a layer rotation of only 1°. Sample shapes were printed with calcium phosphate cement using a 3D Bioplotter from EnvisionTec. Both straight and wavy spokes were printed in a round structure with 12 layers. Depending on the strand diameter (200 and 250 µm needle inner diameter) and strand arrangement, maximum failure loads of 444.86 ± 169.39 N for samples without subsequent setting in PBS up to 1280.88 ± 538.66 N after setting in PBS could be achieved.

The Mineralization of Various 3D-Printed PCL Composites.

In this project, different calcification methods for collagen and collagen coatings were compared in terms of their applicability for 3D printing and production of collagen-coated scaffolds. For this purpose, scaffolds were printed from polycaprolactone PCL using the EnvisionTec 3D Bioplotter and then coated with collagen. Four different coating methods were then applied: hydroxyapatite (HA) powder directly in the collagen coating, incubation in 10× SBF, coating with alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and coating with poly-L-aspartic acid. The results were compared by ESEM, µCT, TEM, and EDX. HA directly in the collagen solution resulted in a pH change and thus an increase in viscosity, leading to clumping on the scaffolds. As a function of incubation time in 10× SBF as well as in ALP, HA layer thickness increased, while no coating on the collagen layer was apparently observed with poly-L-aspartic acid. Only ultrathin sections and TEM with SuperEDX detected nano crystalline HA in the collagen layer. Exclusively the incubation in poly-L-aspartic acid led to HA crystals within the collagen coating compared to all other methods where the HA layers formed in different forms only at the collagen layer.

Influence of 3D Printing Parameters on the Mechanical Stability of PCL Scaffolds and the Proliferation Behavior of Bone Cells.

Introduction The use of scaffolds in tissue engineering is becoming increasingly important as solutions need to be found for the problem of preserving human tissue, such as bone or cartilage. In this work, scaffolds were printed from the biomaterial known as polycaprolactone (PCL) on a 3D Bioplotter. Both the external and internal geometry were varied to investigate their influence on mechanical stability and biocompatibility. Materials and Methods: An Envisiontec 3D Bioplotter was used to fabricate the scaffolds. First, square scaffolds were printed with variations in the strand width and strand spacing. Then, the filling structure was varied: either lines, waves, and honeycombs were used. This was followed by variation in the outer shape, produced as either a square, hexagon, octagon, or circle. Finally, the internal and external geometry was varied. To improve interaction with the cells, the printed PCL scaffolds were coated with type-I collagen. MG-63 cells were then cultured on the scaffolds and various tests were performed to investigate the biocompatibility of the scaffolds. Results: With increasing strand thickness and strand spacing, the compressive strengths decreased from 86.18 + 2.34 MPa (200 µm) to 46.38 + 0.52 MPa (600 µm). The circle was the outer shape with the highest compressive strength of 76.07 + 1.49 MPa, compared to the octagon, which had the lowest value of 52.96 ± 0.98 MPa. Varying the external shape (toward roundness) geometry, as well as the filling configuration, resulted in the highest values of compressive strength for the round specimens with honeycomb filling, which had a value of 91.4 + 1.4 MPa. In the biocompatibility tests, the round specimens with honeycomb filling also showed the highest cell count per mm2, with 1591 ± 239 live cells/mm2 after 10 days and the highest value in cell proliferation, but with minimal cytotoxic effects (9.19 ± 2.47% after 3 days).

Mechanical Properties of the Composite Material consisting of ß-TCP and Alginate-Di-Aldehyde-Gelatin Hydrogel and Its Degradation Behavior.

This work aimed to determine the influence of two hydrogels (alginate, alginate-di-aldehyde (ADA)/gelatin) on the mechanical strength of microporous ceramics, which have been loaded with these hydrogels. For this purpose, the compressive strength was determined using a Zwick Z005 universal testing machine. In addition, the degradation behavior according to ISO EN 10993-14 in TRIS buffer pH 5.0 and pH 7.4 over 60 days was determined, and its effects on the compressive strength were investigated. The loading was carried out by means of a flow-chamber. The weight of the samples (manufacturer: Robert Mathys Foundation (RMS) and Curasan) in TRIS solutions pH 5 and pH 7 increased within 4 h (mean 48 ± 32 mg) and then remained constant over the experimental period of 60 days. The determination surface roughness showed a decrease in the value for the ceramics incubated in TRIS compared to the untreated ceramics. In addition, an increase in protein concentration in solution was determined for ADA gelatin-loaded ceramics. The macroporous Curasan ceramic exhibited a maximum failure load of 29 ± 9.0 N, whereas the value for the microporous RMS ceramic was 931 ± 223 N. Filling the RMS ceramic with ADA gelatin increased the maximum failure load to 1114 ± 300 N. The Curasan ceramics were too fragile for loading. The maximum failure load decreased for the RMS ceramics to 686.55 ± 170 N by incubation in TRIS pH 7.4 and 651 ± 287 N at pH 5.0.