Relationship among eye and muzzle temperatures measured using digital infrared thermal imaging and vaginal and rectal temperatures in hair sheep and cattle.

Digital infrared thermal imaging (DITI) using a thermal camera has potential to be a useful tool for the production animal industry. Thermography has been used in both humans and a wide range of animal species to measure body temperature as a method to detect injury or inflammation. The objective of these experiments was to compare the temperature of the eye (EYE) or muzzle (MUZ) measured using DITI to vaginal (VT) and rectal temperature (RT) as measures of core body temperature in hair sheep and beef cattle. In Exp.1 EYE, VT and RT were measured in lactating, multiparous hair sheep ewes (St. Croix White, n = 10, and Dorper × St. Croix White, n = 10) in a non-febrile state 5 times over a 48-h period. Data loggers were used to measure VT and a digital veterinary thermometer was used to measure RT. There was a high correlation (P < 0.001) between VT and RT (r = 0.95), EYE and RT (r = 0.76) and EYE and VT (r = 0.77). In Exp. 2 EYE, MUZ, VT and RT were measured in multiparous, lactating ewes (St. Croix White, n = 2, and Barbados Blackbelly, n = 12) at -12, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, and 48 h after being administered lipopolysaccharide (LPS; n = 7; 0.2 µg/kg BW, i.v.) or saline (n = 7; 0.5 mL, i.v.). Data loggers were used to measure VT and a digital veterinary thermometer was used to measure RT. When data were combined across treatments (LPS and saline) there was a high correlation (P < 0.001) between VT and RT (r = 0.96), EYE and RT (r = 0.82), MUZ and RT (r = 0.72), and EYE and VT (r = 0.93). In Exp. 3 EYE, MUZ, VT and RT were measured in multiparous, non-lactating, pregnant Senepol cattle (n = 44) between 0900 and 1200 h on a single day. A digital veterinary thermometer was used to measure both VT and RT. There was a high correlation (P < 0.001) between VT and RT (r = 0.78), a moderate correlation (P < 0.001) between VT and EYE (r = 0.52), RT and EYE (r = 0.58) and EYE and MUZ (r = 0.48). There was no correlation (P > 0.10) between RT or VT and MUZ. The findings of these three studies indicate that temperature of the eye, measured using DITI, can be used as an indicator of core body temperature in hair sheep and beef cattle as an alternative to using vaginal or rectal temperature.

The effect of a split feeding regimen and breed on body temperature of hair sheep ewes in the tropics.

Lactating St. Croix White and Dorper×St. Croix White ewes were used to evaluate the effect of breed and feeding a split ration on body temperature during the cool (March-April) and warm (July-August) seasons in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Within each season ewes were assigned to treatments (n=8/treatment) based on breed, age, and number of lambs. Treatments consisted of individually feeding ewes daily 0.9 kg concentrate (16.4% CP and 68% TDN) in the morning (AM) or afternoon (PM), 0.45 kg in the morning and afternoon (AM-PM), or no feed (Control) for 56 d beginning on d 7 (lambing=d 0). Ewes were fitted with intravaginal temperature data loggers, set to record vaginal temperature (VT) at 5-min intervals, for 48 h in wk 2 (d 8-14), 5 (d 29-35), and 8 (d 50-56) postpartum. Repeated measures analysis of VT was conducted using a model including treatment, season, and breed as fixed effects. There was no effect of season so data were pooled across season. The interaction of breed with treatment or season was not significant so breed comparisons were made using data pooled across treatments and season. The mean temperature, relative humidity, and temperature-humidity index during the cool and warm seasons were 25.8°C, 85.9%, and 76.1 and 28.3°C, 86.7%, and 80.6, respectively. There was no effect of season or the breed×treatment×season interaction on VT (P>0.10) so all data were pooled across season and breed for analysis of the treatment effect. During wk 2 there was no difference (P>0.10) in VT among treatment groups. During wk 5 the AM-PM ewes had higher (P<0.01) VT than AM, PM, or Control ewes. During wk 8 the AM-PM and PM ewes had higher VT (P<0.01) than either the AM or Control ewes. To evaluate breed effect, data were pooled across treatments and seasons and analyzed using breed as the single main effect. Dorper×St. Croix White ewes had higher (P<0.0001) VT than St. Croix White ewes. The results show that body temperature of ewes can be influenced by time of feeding and breed. The local breed of sheep, St. Croix White, had a lower body temperature than Dorper×St. Croix White sheep. Ewes that were fed in the afternoon for an extended time during the postpartum period developed elevated body temperatures, which could make them more susceptible to heat stress.

Quality of pharmaceutical care in hospitals.

The objective of this study was to measure the quality of pharmaceutical services provided to hospital inpatients. Using Donabedian's model, normative standards from the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals and the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists were used to develop a personal interview schedule to access the structure and process components of pharmaceutical services. To determine the effect of bed size, rural vs. urban, and presence of a full- or part-time pharmacist on the quality of pharmaceutical services, three samples of short-term hospitals were drawn: a random sample of Mississippi hospitals with less than 100 beds; all Mississippi hospitals of 100 or more beds; and a sample of hospitals in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In each of the 112 hospitals a personal interview was conducted with either the chief pharmacist or the administrator responsible for the pharmaceutical service. The responses to the items were then tabulated and a structure and a process score were obtained for each hospital. The following conclusions can be made: (1) The quality of the "structural" components is positively related to the bed size and not to whether the hospital is located in a rural or urban setting; (2) the quality of the "process" components is related to both the bed size and the location of the hospital--hospitals having 100 or more beds or located in an urban area have a higher process quality than those having less than 100 beds or located in a rural area; and (3) hospitals employing a full-time pharmacist have a higher quality of care than those who do not.