Application of Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Monitor the Quality Change of Sour Cherry Stored under Modified Atmosphere Conditions.

Determining and applying 'good' postharvest and quality control practices for otherwise highly sensitive fruits, such as sour cherry, is critical, as they serve as excellent media for a wide variety of microbial contaminants. The objective of this research was to report two series of experiments on the modified atmosphere storage (MAP) of sour cherries (Prunus cerasus L. var. Kántorjánosi, Újfehértói fürtös). Firstly, the significant effect of different washing pre-treatments on various quality indices was examined (i.e., headspace gas composition, weight loss, decay rate, color, firmness, soluble solid content, total plate count) in MAP-packed fruits. Subsequently, the applicability of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometrics was investigated to detect the effect of various storage conditions (packed as control or MAP, stored at 3 or 5 °C) on sour cherries of different perceived ripeness. Significant differences were found for oxygen concentration when two perforations were applied on the packages of 'Kántorjánosi' (p < 0.01); weight loss when 'Kánorjánosi' (p < 0.001) and 'Újfehértói fürtös' (p < 0.01) were packed in MAP; SSC when 'Újfehértói fürtös' samples were ozone-treated (p < 0.05); and total plate count when 'Kántorjánosi' samples were ozone-treated (p < 0.01). The difference spectra reflected the high variability in the samples, and the detectable effects of different packaging. Based on the investigations with the soft independent modelling of class analogies (SIMCA), different packaging and storage resulted in significant differences in most of the cases even on the first storage day, which in many cases increased by the end of storage. The soft independent modelling of class analogies proved to be suitable for classification with apparent error rates between 0 and 0.5 during prediction regardless of ripeness. The research findings suggest the further correlation of NIR spectroscopic and reference parameters to support postharvest handling and fast quality control.

Aquaphotomics Monitoring of Lettuce Freshness during Cold Storage.

Fresh-cut leafy vegetables are one of the most perishable products because they readily deteriorate in quality even during cold storage and have a relatively short shelf life. Since these products are in high demand, methods for rigorous quality control and estimation of freshness that are rapid and non-destructive would be highly desirable. The objective of the present research was to develop a rapid, non-destructive near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-based method for the evaluation of changes during cold storage of lettuce using an aquaphotomics approach to monitor the water molecular structure in lettuce leaves. The reference measurements showed that after 6 days of dark, cold storage, the weight and water activity of lettuce leaves decreased and ß-carotene decreased, while chlorophylls slightly increased. Aquaphotomics characterization showed large differences in the lettuce leaves' spectra depending on their growth zone. Difference spectra, principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) confirmed the differences in the inner and outer leaves and revealed that spectra change as a function of storage time. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) allowed the prediction of the time spent in storage with a coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.80 and standard error of RMSE = 0.77 days for inner, and R2 = 0.86 and RMSE = 0.66 days for outer leaves, respectively. The following water absorbance bands were found to provide the most information in the spectra: 1348, 1360, 1373, 1385, 1391, 1410, 1416, 1422, 1441, 1447, 1453, 1466, 1472, 1490, 1503, 1515, 1521, 1534 and 1571 nm. They were further used as water matrix coordinates (WAMACs) to define the water spectral patterns (WASPs) of lettuce leaves. The WASPs of leaves served to succinctly describe the state of lettuces during storage. The changes in WASPs during storage reveled moisture loss, damage to cell walls and expulsion of intracellular water, as well as loss of free and weakly hydrogen-bonded water, all leading to a loss of juiciness. The WASPs also showed that damage stimulated the defense mechanisms and production of vitamin C. The leaves at the end of the storage period were characterized by water strongly bound to collapsed structural elements of leaf tissues, mainly cellulose, leading to a loss of firmness that was more pronounced in the outer leaves. All of this information was reflected in the changes of absorbance in the identified WAMACs, showing that the water molecular structure of lettuce leaves accurately reflects the state of the lettuce during storage and that WASPs can be used as a multidimensional biomarker to monitor changes during storage.

NIRS and Aquaphotomics Trace Robusta-to-Arabica Ratio in Liquid Coffee Blends.

Coffee is both a vastly consumed beverage and a chemically complex matrix. For a long time, an arduous chemical analysis was necessary to resolve coffee authentication issues. Despite their demonstrated efficacy, such techniques tend to rely on reference methods or resort to elaborate extraction steps. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and the aquaphotomics approach, on the other hand, reportedly offer a rapid, reliable, and holistic compositional overview of varying analytes but with little focus on low concentration mixtures of Robusta-to-Arabica coffee. Our study aimed for a comparative assessment of ground coffee adulteration using NIRS and liquid coffee adulteration using the aquaphotomics approach. The aim was to demonstrate the potential of monitoring ground and liquid coffee quality as they are commercially the most available coffee forms. Chemometrics spectra analysis proved capable of distinguishing between the studied samples and efficiently estimating the added Robusta concentrations. An accuracy of 100% was obtained for the varietal discrimination of pure Arabica and Robusta, both in ground and liquid form. Robusta-to-Arabica ratio was predicted with R2CV values of 0.99 and 0.9 in ground and liquid form respectively. Aquagrams results accentuated the peculiarities of the two coffee varieties and their respective blends by designating different water conformations depending on the coffee variety and assigning a particular water absorption spectral pattern (WASP) depending on the blending ratio. Marked spectral features attributed to high hydrogen bonded water characterized Arabica-rich coffee, while those with the higher Robusta content showed an abundance of free water structures. Collectively, the obtained results ascertain the adequacy of NIRS and aquaphotomics as promising alternative tools for the authentication of liquid coffee that can correlate the water-related fingerprint to the Robusta-to-Arabica ratio.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Aquaphotomics for Monitoring Mung Bean (Vigna radiata) Sprout Growth and Validation of Ascorbic Acid Content.

Mung bean is a leguminous crop with specific trait in its diet, namely in the form of anti-nutrient components. The sprouting process is commonly done for better nutritional acceptance of mung bean as it presents better nutritional benefits. Sprouted mung bean serves as a cheap source of protein and ascorbic acid, which are dependent on the sprouting process, hence the importance of following the biological process. In larger production scale, there has not been a definite standard for mung bean sprouting, raising the need for quick and effective mung bean sprout quality checks. In this regard, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been recognized as a highly sensitive technique for quality control that seems suitable for this study. The aim of this paper was to describe quality parameters (water content, pH, conductivity, and ascorbic acid by titration) during sprouting using conventional analytical methods and advanced NIRS techniques as correlative methods for modelling sprouted mung beans' quality and ascorbic acid content. Mung beans were sprouted in 6 h intervals up to 120 h and analyzed using conventional methods and a NIR instrument. The results of the standard analytical methods were analyzed with univariate statistics (analysis of variance (ANOVA)), and the NIRS spectral data was assessed with the chemometrics approach (principal component analysis (PCA), discriminant analysis (DA), and partial least squares regression (PLSR)). Water content showed a monotonous increase during the 120 h of sprouting. The change in pH and conductivity did not describe a clear pattern during the sprouting, confirming the complexity of the biological process. Spectral data-based discriminant analysis was able to distinctly classify the bean sprouts with 100% prediction accuracy. A NIRS-based model for ascorbic acid determination was made using standard ascorbic acid to quantify the components in the bean extract. A rapid detection technique within sub-percent level was developed for mung bean ascorbic acid content with R2 above 0.90. The NIR-based prediction offers reliable estimation of mung bean sprout quality.

Detection and Quantification of Tomato Paste Adulteration Using Conventional and Rapid Analytical Methods.

Tomato, and its concentrate are important food ingredients with outstanding gastronomic and industrial importance due to their unique organoleptic, dietary, and compositional properties. Various forms of food adulteration are often suspected in the different tomato-based products causing major economic and sometimes even health problems for the farmers, food industry and consumers. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and electronic tongue (e-tongue) have been lauded as advanced, high sensitivity techniques for quality control. The aim of the present research was to detect and predict relatively low concentration of adulterants, such as paprika seed and corn starch (0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10%), sucrose and salt (0.5, 1, 2, 5%), in tomato paste using conventional (soluble solid content, consistency) and advanced analytical techniques (NIR spectroscopy, e-tongue). The results obtained with the conventional methods were analyzed with univariate statistics (ANOVA), while the data obtained with advanced analytical methods were analyzed with multivariate methods (Principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), partial least squares regression (PLSR). The conventional methods were only able to detect adulteration at higher concentrations (5-10%). For NIRS and e-tongue, good accuracies were obtained, even in identifying minimal adulterant concentrations (0.5%). Comparatively, NIR spectroscopy proved to be easier to implement and more accurate during our evaluations, when the adulterant contents were estimated with R2 above 0.96 and root mean square error (RMSE) below 1%.

Historical Evolution and Food Control Achievements of Near Infrared Spectroscopy, Electronic Nose, and Electronic Tongue-Critical Overview.

Amid today's stringent regulations and rising consumer awareness, failing to meet quality standards often results in health and financial compromises. In the lookout for solutions, the food industry has seen a surge in high-performing systems all along the production chain. By virtue of their wide-range designs, speed, and real-time data processing, the electronic tongue (E-tongue), electronic nose (E-nose), and near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy have been at the forefront of quality control technologies. The instruments have been used to fingerprint food properties and to control food production from farm-to-fork. Coupled with advanced chemometric tools, these high-throughput yet cost-effective tools have shifted the focus away from lengthy and laborious conventional methods. This special issue paper focuses on the historical overview of the instruments and their role in food quality measurements based on defined food matrices from the Codex General Standards. The instruments have been used to detect, classify, and predict adulteration of dairy products, sweeteners, beverages, fruits and vegetables, meat, and fish products. Multiple physico-chemical and sensory parameters of these foods have also been predicted with the instruments in combination with chemometrics. Their inherent potential for speedy, affordable, and reliable measurements makes them a perfect choice for food control. The high sensitivity of the instruments can sometimes be generally challenging due to the influence of environmental conditions, but mathematical correction techniques exist to combat these challenges.

Factors Influencing the Long-Term Stability of Electronic Tongue and Application of Improved Drift Correction Methods.

Temperature, memory effect, and cross-contamination are suspected to contribute to drift in electronic tongue (e-tongue) sensors, therefore drift corrections are required. This paper aimed to assess the disturbing effects on the sensor signals during measurement with an Alpha Astree e-tongue and to develop drift correction techniques. Apple juice samples were measured at different temperatures. pH change of apple juice samples was measured to assess cross-contamination. Different sequential orders of model solutions and apple juice samples were applied to evaluate the memory effect. Model solutions corresponding to basic tastes and commercial apple juice samples were measured for six consecutive weeks to model drift of the sensor signals. Result showed that temperature, cross-contamination, and memory effect influenced the sensor signals. Three drift correction methods: additive drift correction based on all samples, additive drift correction based on reference samples, and multi sensor linear correction, were developed and compared to the component correction in literature through linear discriminant analysis (LDA). LDA analysis showed all the four methods were effective in reducing sensor drift in long-term measurements but the additive correction relative to the whole sample set gave the best results. The results could be explored for long-term measurements with the e-tongue.

Detecting Low Concentrations of Nitrogen-Based Adulterants in Whey Protein Powder Using Benchtop and Handheld NIR Spectrometers and the Feasibility of Scanning through Plastic Bag.

Nitrogen-rich adulterants in protein powders present sensitivity challenges to conventional combustion methods of protein determination which can be overcome by near Infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). NIRS is a rapid analytical method with high sensitivity and non-invasive advantages. This study developed robust models using benchtop and handheld spectrometers to predict low concentrations of urea, glycine, taurine, and melamine in whey protein powder (WPP). Effectiveness of scanning samples through optical glass and polyethylene bags was also tested for the handheld NIRS. WPP was adulterated up to six concentration levels from 0.5% to 3% w/w. The two spectrometers were used to obtain three datasets of 819 diffuse reflectance spectra each that were pretreated before linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and regression (PLSR). Pretreatment was effective and revealed important absorption bands that could be correlated with the chemical properties of the mixtures. Benchtop NIR spectrometer showed the best results in LDA and PLSR but handheld NIR spectrometers showed comparatively good results. There were high prediction accuracies and low errors attesting to the robustness of the developed PLSR models using independent test set validation. Both the plastic bag and optical glass gave good results with accuracies depending on the adulterant of interest and can be used for field applications.