Behavior and cortisol levels of dogs in a public animal shelter, and an exploration of the ability of these measures to predict problem behavior after adoption.

Behavior and plasma cortisol levels were examined in puppies and juvenile/adult dogs admitted to a public animal shelter. A behavioral test was developed to assess the responses of the dogs to novel or threatening conditions. Factor analysis of the behavioral responses of 166 dogs on day 3 in the shelter yielded six factors (locomotor activity, flight, sociability, timidity, solicitation, and wariness) that accounted for 68% of the total variance. Among those dogs remaining in the shelter for 9 days, plasma cortisol levels declined from day 2 to 9. Cortisol levels were weakly related to factor scores. In order to explore the relation of measures in the shelter to later behavior, questionnaires assessing problem behaviors were mailed to new owners of dogs 2 weeks and 6 months following adoption. Among puppies, wariness scores were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 2 weeks and cortisol levels were negatively correlated with behavior problems at 6 months. These results suggest how measures of behavior and endocrine activity obtained in shelters might prove useful for screening dogs for adoption or targeting dogs for behavioral intervention.

Behavioral problems in old dogs: 26 cases (1984-1987).

Among 26 dogs greater than or equal to 10 years old, the most frequent owner complaints relating to behavioral problems were destructive behavior in the house (n = 10), inappropriate urination or defecation in the house (n = 10), and excessive vocalization (n = 7). The most frequent behavioral diagnoses were separation anxiety (n = 13) and breakdown of housetraining (n = 6). Most of the behavioral problems in the 26 dogs began after the dogs reached the age of 10 years, and most of the dogs had been owned for many years without having behavioral problems. Few behavioral problems in old dogs had a medical basis. Most cases of inappropriate urination or defecation in the house were not related to urinary or fecal incontinence, but were exacerbated by problems such as degenerative joint disease and renal disease. Behavioral therapy is appropriate for behavioral problems in old dogs, and, taking into account an old dog's health and physical limitations, techniques used are the same as for younger dogs.

Cat aggression redirected to people: 14 cases (1981-1987).

Among 27 cases of cat aggression manifested toward people, 14 cases were diagnosed as redirected or probable redirected aggression, because the cat was already highly aroused by other stimuli before attacking a person. A detailed behavioral history enabled identification of arousing stimuli. The most common arousing stimulus was the presence of another cat. Other arousing stimuli included high-pitched noises, visitors in the house, a dog, an unusual odor, and being outdoors unexpectedly. Medical problems or other behavioral abnormalities were not detected in any of the cats that could explain their aggressive behavior. Management consisted of avoidance or elimination of arousing stimuli wherever possible and extensive client education. On follow-up there was no recurrence of redirected attacks in 4 cats, variable decreases in the severity and frequency of attacks in 5 cats, and no change in 1 cat. Three cats were euthanatized, including one that had shown some improvement. Follow-up information was not available for the 2 remaining cases. Redirected aggression in cats is not well documented and may be misdiagnosed as idiopathic aggression or other behavioral abnormality. Although redirected attacks may be sudden, severe, and frightening, with careful management, a favorable outcome is possible.

Principles of learning.

This article discusses some general principles of learning as well as possible constraints and how such principles can apply to horses. A brief review is presented of experiments that were designed to assess learning in horses. The use of behavior modification techniques to treat behavior problems in horses is discussed and several examples of the use of these techniques are provided.

Attachment of people to companion animals.

Cat and dog owners appear to be equally attached to their pets, engage in similar behaviors, and hold similar opinions regarding their pets. The universality and strength of this attachment may be because household pets fit into the biological attachment system that exists to bond parents and children. Additionally, pets may convey a feeling of security or a sense of well-being that is rooted in our evolutionary past.

Attacks by packs of dogs involving predation on human beings.

Dog bites are a medical problem for millions of people, children being the most common victims. Human deaths attributable to dog bite injury (not rabies) are relatively infrequent. There have been some epidemiologic reviews, but this study is the first attempt to arrive at an understanding of bites involving predation on human beings by conducting behavioral examinations under controlled conditions of the dogs involved, and by interviewing victims, witnesses, and people familiar with the animals.The three cases studied involved two fatalities and an attack that was nearly fatal. The victims were 11, 14, and 81. In each case, owned pet dogs consumed some human tissue. The severity of the victims' injuries was not the consequence of a single dog bite, but the result of repeated attacks by dogs behaving as a social group. Factors that might contribute to a dog's regarding human beings as potential prey were examined, including hunger, prior predation, group behaviors, defense of territory, previous interactions with people, the presence of estrous female dogs, and environmental stimuli. In two of the cases, it was possible, by using similar stimuli, to duplicate the circumstances at the time of the attack.The results of the observations showed the value of behavioral analysis and simulations methods in evaluating possible factors in dog attacks.Among the many factors probably involved in severe dog attacks are the size, number, and nutritional status of the dogs; the dogs' previous aggressive contacts with people; the victim's age, size, health, and behavior; and the absence of other human beings in the vicinity.