The timing and predictors of the early termination of breastfeeding.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and correlates of the early discontinuation of breastfeeding by mothers eligible for the Women, Infants, and Children Program (WIC). METHODOLOGY: A longitudinal observational study in which we enrolled English-speaking mothers who initiated breastfeeding after delivering healthy-term infants at Yale-New Haven Hospital and planned to bring their infants to the hospital's primary care center. Data on mother's baseline knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and problems regarding breastfeeding were collected by semistructured interviews within 48 hours after delivery, at 1 and 2 weeks' postpartum, and by chart reviews at 2 and 4 months. A nonparticipating control group was used to test the Hawthorne effect. RESULTS: Of the 64 participating mothers, the majority were minority (56% black, 34% of Puerto Rican origin), single (75%), and already enrolled in WIC (91%). The rates of discontinuation of breastfeeding were 27%, 37%, 70%, and 89% by 1 week, 2 weeks, 2 months, and 4 months, respectively. The mother's knowledge and problems of lactation were not associated with the early discontinuation of breastfeeding. After using logistic regression to control for potential confounders, mothers who lacked confidence at baseline that they would still be breastfeeding at 2 months (risk ratio: 2.38, 95% confidence interval: 1.82-6.18), and those who believed that the baby prefers formula (risk ratio: 1.68, 95% confidence interval: 1.04-2.71) were more likely to stop breastfeeding within the first 2 weeks postpartum. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study demonstrate that interventions aimed at prolonging the duration of breastfeeding in this population will need to shift focus from increasing knowledge and managing problems of lactation to enhancing the mother's confidence regarding breastfeeding, while also addressing beliefs regarding an infant's preferences.

Health care and hospitalizations of young children born to cocaine-using women.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the health care and hospitalizations of young children (birth to age 2 years) born to cocaine-using women and to assess the extent to which premature births account for differences between these children and comparison children. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort design using a repeat-matching method: comparison children were matched to subjects with exposure to cocaine on 6 sociodemographic variables, first, without attention to gestational age and then using the gestational age as additional matching variable. SETTING: City hospitals and primary care clinics. SUBJECTS: Children of women giving birth at a single hospital. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Hospital admission and indexes of health care use for children from birth to age 2 years. RESULTS: Of the 139 subjects with exposure to cocaine, 23% were born prematurely compared with only 6% in the first comparison ( P < .001). At birth, children with exposure to cocaine remained in the hospital longer (P < .01), but this difference was explained by the increased prevalence of prematurity. By age 2 years, these children had significantly fewer visits for health care maintenance (P < .001), were less likely to have completed immunizations (P < .05), and spend more days in the hospital than comparison children. These differences were not related to prematurity, but were explained by differences in sociodemographic characteristics. CONCLUSION: Although prematurity is the major reason for lengthier hospital stays at birth of children with exposure to cocaine, adverse social factors contribute most to inadequate preventive health care and increased stays in the hospital in subsequent years.

Maltreatment of children born to women who used cocaine during pregnancy: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of maltreatment of children born to women who used cocaine during pregnancy have relied on either selected samples of infants identified at birth or biased, high-risk samples referred to protective services. OBJECTIVE: To determine the relative risk of either maltreatment or placement outside the home during the first 2 years of life in children born to women who used cocaine during pregnancy compared with a sociodemographically similar comparison group. PATIENTS: We reviewed the medical records of consecutive deliveries at Yale-New Haven Hospital from August 1, 1989 through September 30, 1990. Of the 1140 women who were eligible for the study, 173 had a positive history and/or a positive urine test for cocaine; 139 of the infants were included in the study. A comparison group of infants was chosen from 526 women whose obstetric records indicated that they had not used cocaine during pregnancy based on at least two separate notations in the record. For each of the 139 cocaine-exposed infants, an infant was chosen from the comparison group based on seven matching characteristics: date of birth, race, method of payment for the hospitalization, gestational age, mother's parity, mother's age at delivery, and timing of the first prenatal visit. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Children's medical records at the only two hospitals in the region, the two neighborhood health centers, and the only health maintenance organization were reviewed from birth to 2 years of age. Each injury was classified by two independent reviewers who used predefined criteria to distinguish maltreatment (physical abuse, neglect, or abandonment) from unintentional injuries. Placements outside the home were categorized according to whether the placement was in foster care or with a relative. MAIN RESULTS: The children were mainly African-Americans (80%), and most were enrolled in Medicaid (96.5%). By 2 years of age, 9.3% of the infants in the cocaine-exposed group versus 1.4% in the comparison group had been maltreated [matched relative risk = 6.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.47, 28.80], and 25.9% vs 8.6% had spent some time in placement (matched relative risk = 5.0; 95% CI = 2.08, 12.01). After controlling for differences between the groups in baseline clinical and social variables, the adjusted odds ratios for both maltreatment (3.98; 95% CI = .81, 22.80) and placement (1.66; 95% CI = .74, 17. 83) decreased and were no longer statistically significant. CONCLUSION: In this population-based study, children born to women who used cocaine during pregnancy were at a substantially increased risk of maltreatment or placement outside the home compared with a sociodemographically similar comparison group. Differences in baseline variables between the two groups, however, partially accounted for this increased risk. Therefore, a mother's use of cocaine is more likely a marker of increased risk rather than a single explanatory variable.