Mn porphyrin regulation of aerobic glycolysis: implications on the activation of diabetogenic immune cells.

AIMS: The immune system is critical for protection against infections and cancer, but requires scrupulous regulation to limit self-reactivity and autoimmunity. Our group has utilized a manganese porphyrin catalytic antioxidant (MnTE-2-PyP(5+), MnP) as a potential immunoregulatory therapy for type 1 diabetes. MnP has previously been shown to modulate diabetogenic immune responses through decreases in proinflammatory cytokine production from antigen-presenting cells and T cells and to reduce diabetes onset in nonobese diabetic mice. However, it is unclear whether or not MnP treatment can act beyond the reported inflammatory mediators. Therefore, the hypothesis that MnP may be affecting the redox-dependent bioenergetics of diabetogenic splenocytes was investigated. RESULTS: MnP treatment enhanced glucose oxidation, reduced fatty acid oxidation, but only slightly decreased overall oxidative phosphorylation. These alterations occurred because of increased tricarboxylic acid cycle aconitase enzyme efficiency and were not due to changes in mitochondrial abundance. MnP treatment also displayed decreased aerobic glycolysis, which promotes activated immune cell proliferation, as demonstrated by reduced lactate production and glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) levels and inactivation of key signaling molecules, such as mammalian target of rapamycin, c-myc, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. INNOVATION: This work highlights the importance of redox signaling by demonstrating that modulation of reactive oxygen species can supplant complex downstream regulation, thus affecting metabolic programming toward aerobic glycolysis. CONCLUSION: MnP treatment promotes metabolic quiescence, impeding diabetogenic autoimmune responses by restricting the metabolic pathways for energy production and affecting anabolic processes necessary for cell proliferation.

Multistationary and oscillatory modes of free radicals generation by the mitochondrial respiratory chain revealed by a bifurcation analysis.

The mitochondrial electron transport chain transforms energy satisfying cellular demand and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) that act as metabolic signals or destructive factors. Therefore, knowledge of the possible modes and bifurcations of electron transport that affect ROS signaling provides insight into the interrelationship of mitochondrial respiration with cellular metabolism. Here, a bifurcation analysis of a sequence of the electron transport chain models of increasing complexity was used to analyze the contribution of individual components to the modes of respiratory chain behavior. Our algorithm constructed models as large systems of ordinary differential equations describing the time evolution of the distribution of redox states of the respiratory complexes. The most complete model of the respiratory chain and linked metabolic reactions predicted that condensed mitochondria produce more ROS at low succinate concentration and less ROS at high succinate levels than swelled mitochondria. This prediction was validated by measuring ROS production under various swelling conditions. A numerical bifurcation analysis revealed qualitatively different types of multistationary behavior and sustained oscillations in the parameter space near a region that was previously found to describe the behavior of isolated mitochondria. The oscillations in transmembrane potential and ROS generation, observed in living cells were reproduced in the model that includes interaction of respiratory complexes with the reactions of TCA cycle. Whereas multistationarity is an internal characteristic of the respiratory chain, the functional link of respiration with central metabolism creates oscillations, which can be understood as a means of auto-regulation of cell metabolism.

Early islet damage after direct exposure of pig islets to blood: has humoral immunity been underestimated?

Currently, islet transplantation as a cell therapeutic option for type 1 diabetes occurs via islet injection into the portal vein. Direct contact between islets and blood is a pathophysiological "provocation" that results in the instant blood-mediated inflammatory reaction (IBMIR) and is associated with early islet loss. However, the nature of the various insults on the islets in the blood stream remains mostly unknown. To gain insight into the mechanisms, we utilized a simplified in vitro model in which islets were exposed to blood in different clinically relevant but increasingly challenging, autologous, allogeneic, and xenogeneic combinations. Irrespective of the blood type and species compatibility, islets triggered blood clotting. Islet damage was worse as islet, and blood compatibility diminished, with substantial islet injury after exposure of porcine islets to human blood. Islet damage involved membrane leakage, antibody deposition, complement activation, positive staining for the membrane attack complex, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Islet damage occurred even after exposure to plasma only, and specific complement inactivation and neutralization of IgM substantially prevented islet damage, indicating the importance of humoral immunity. Efficacious measures are needed to reduce this injury, especially in view of a potential clinical use of porcine islets to treat diabetes.

Reactive oxygen species production by forward and reverse electron fluxes in the mitochondrial respiratory chain.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced in the mitochondrial respiratory chain (RC) are primary signals that modulate cellular adaptation to environment, and are also destructive factors that damage cells under the conditions of hypoxia/reoxygenation relevant for various systemic diseases or transplantation. The important role of ROS in cell survival requires detailed investigation of mechanism and determinants of ROS production. To perform such an investigation we extended our rule-based model of complex III in order to account for electron transport in the whole RC coupled to proton translocation, transmembrane electrochemical potential generation, TCA cycle reactions, and substrate transport to mitochondria. It fits respiratory electron fluxes measured in rat brain mitochondria fueled by succinate or pyruvate and malate, and the dynamics of NAD(+) reduction by reverse electron transport from succinate through complex I. The fitting of measured characteristics gave an insight into the mechanism of underlying processes governing the formation of free radicals that can transfer an unpaired electron to oxygen-producing superoxide and thus can initiate the generation of ROS. Our analysis revealed an association of ROS production with levels of specific radicals of individual electron transporters and their combinations in species of complexes I and III. It was found that the phenomenon of bistability, revealed previously as a property of complex III, remains valid for the whole RC. The conditions for switching to a state with a high content of free radicals in complex III were predicted based on theoretical analysis and were confirmed experimentally. These findings provide a new insight into the mechanisms of ROS production in RC.

Bistability of mitochondrial respiration underlies paradoxical reactive oxygen species generation induced by anoxia.

Increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria underlies major systemic diseases, and this clinical problem stimulates a great scientific interest in the mechanism of ROS generation. However, the mechanism of hypoxia-induced change in ROS production is not fully understood. To mathematically analyze this mechanism in details, taking into consideration all the possible redox states formed in the process of electron transport, even for respiratory complex III, a system of hundreds of differential equations must be constructed. Aimed to facilitate such tasks, we developed a new methodology of modeling, which resides in the automated construction of large sets of differential equations. The detailed modeling of electron transport in mitochondria allowed for the identification of two steady state modes of operation (bistability) of respiratory complex III at the same microenvironmental conditions. Various perturbations could induce the transition of respiratory chain from one steady state to another. While normally complex III is in a low ROS producing mode, temporal anoxia could switch it to a high ROS producing state, which persists after the return to normal oxygen supply. This prediction, which we qualitatively validated experimentally, explains the mechanism of anoxia-induced cell damage. Recognition of bistability of complex III operation may enable novel therapeutic strategies for oxidative stress and our method of modeling could be widely used in systems biology studies.

Chapter 24 Quantification, localization, and tissue specificities of mouse mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production.

Mitochondria play a critical role in many different pathologic conditions. Increasing evidence has shown that mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production may provide an etiologic link between mitochondria and pathologics. The widespread use of laboratory mice as models for a host of human diseases makes the quantification and localization of ROS production from mice an important endeavor. This chapter presents approaches to the quantification and localization of ROS from mouse brain, liver, and beta cell mitochondria. Techniques for the isolation of mitochondria and mitochondrial fractions and the subsequent quantification of ROS with Amplex Red or a FACS-based method on intact cells are described.

The role of external and matrix pH in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in mitochondria as a side product of electron and proton transport through the inner membrane is important for normal cell operation as well as development of pathology. Matrix and cytosol alkalization stabilizes semiquinone radical, a potential superoxide producer, and we hypothesized that proton deficiency under the excess of electron donors enhances reactive oxygen species generation. We tested this hypothesis by measuring pH dependence of reactive oxygen species released by mitochondria. The experiments were performed in the media with pH varying from 6 to 8 in the presence of complex II substrate succinate or under more physiological conditions with complex I substrates glutamate and malate. Matrix pH was manipulated by inorganic phosphate, nigericine, and low concentrations of uncoupler or valinomycin. We found that high pH strongly increased the rate of free radical generation in all of the conditions studied, even when DeltapH=0 in the presence of nigericin. In the absence of inorganic phosphate, when the matrix was the most alkaline, pH shift in the medium above 7 induced permeability transition accompanied by the decrease of ROS production. ROS production increase induced by the alkalization of medium was observed with intact respiring mitochondria as well as in the presence of complex I inhibitor rotenone, which enhanced reactive oxygen species release. The phenomena revealed in this report are important for understanding mechanisms governing mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species, in particular that related with uncoupling proteins.

mt-Nd2a suppresses reactive oxygen species production by mitochondrial complexes I and III.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a critical role in the pathogenesis of human diseases. A cytosine to adenine transversion in the mitochondrially encoded NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (mt-ND2, human; mt-Nd2, mouse) gene results in resistance against type 1 diabetes and several additional ROS-associated conditions. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the adenine-containing allele (mt-Nd2(a)) is also strongly associated with resistance against type 1 diabetes in mice. In this report we have confirmed that the cytosine-containing allele (mt-Nd2(c)) results in elevated mitochondrial ROS production. Using inhibitors of the electron transport chain, we show that when in combination with nuclear genes from the alloxan-resistant (ALR) strain, mt-Nd2(c) increases ROS from complex III. Furthermore, by using alamethicin-permeabilized mitochondria, we measured a significant increase in electron transport chain-dependent ROS production from all mt-Nd2(c)-encoding strains including ALR.mt(NOD), non-obese diabetic (NOD), and C57BL/6 (B6). Studies employing alamethicin and inhibitors were able to again localize the heightened ROS production in ALR.mt(NOD) to complex III and identified complex I as the site of elevated ROS production from NOD and B6 mitochondria. Using submitochondrial particles, we confirmed that in the context of the NOD or B6 nuclear genomes, mt-Nd2(c) elevates complex I-specific ROS production. In all assays mitochondria from mt-Nd2(a)-encoding strains exhibited low ROS production. Our data suggest that lowering overall mitochondrial ROS production is a key mechanism of disease protection provided by mt-Nd2(a).

Nuclear and mitochondrial interaction involving mt-Nd2 leads to increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production.

NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2, encoded by the mtDNA, has been associated with resistance to autoimmune type I diabetes (T1D) in a case control study. Recently, we confirmed a role for the mouse ortholog of the protective allele (mt-Nd2(a)) in resistance to T1D using genetic analysis of outcrosses between T1D-resistant ALR and T1D-susceptible NOD mice. We sought to determine the mechanism of disease protection by elucidating whether mt-Nd2(a) affects basal mitochondrial function or mitochondrial function in the presence of oxidative stress. Two lines of reciprocal conplastic mouse strains were generated: one with ALR nuclear DNA and NOD mtDNA (ALR.mt(NOD)) and the reciprocal with NOD nuclear DNA and ALR mtDNA (NOD.mt(ALR)). Basal mitochondrial respiration, transmembrane potential, and electron transport system enzymatic activities showed no difference among the strains. However, ALR.mt(NOD) mitochondria supported by either complex I or complex II substrates produced significantly more reactive oxygen species when compared with both parental strains, NOD.mt(ALR) or C57BL/6 controls. Nitric oxide inhibited respiration to a similar extent for mitochondria from the five strains due to competitive antagonism with molecular oxygen at complex IV. Superoxide and hydrogen peroxide generated by xanthine oxidase did not significantly decrease complex I function. The protein nitrating agents peroxynitrite or nitrogen dioxide radicals significantly decreased complex I function but with no significant difference among the five strains. In summary, mt-Nd2(a) does not confer elevated resistance to oxidative stress; however, it plays a critical role in the control of the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production.

Zinc causes loss of membrane potential and elevates reactive oxygen species in rat brain mitochondria.

Emerging evidence suggests that Zn2+ may impair neuronal metabolism. We examined how Zn2+ affects the activity of isolated brain mitochondria fueled with glutamate + malate, succinate or glycerol 3-phosphate. Submicromolar levels of Zn2+ dissipated membrane potential and inhibited oxygen utilization in all three substrate conditions. Zn(2+)-induced depolarization was reversed by the membrane-impermeant metal chelator, EGTA, and was inhibited by uniporter blockade. Cyclosporin A did not block Zn(2+)-induced depolarization. Added Zn2+ increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in glutamate + malate or glycerol 3-phosphate conditions, but inhibited succinate-supported ROS accumulation. These results show that Zn2+ blocks mitochondrial function in all physiologically relevant substrate conditions.

Ca2+-induced permeabilization promotes free radical release from rat brain mitochondria with partially inhibited complex I.

Mitochondrial complex I dysfunction has been implicated in a number of brain pathologies, putatively owing to an increased rate of reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. However, the mechanisms regulating the ROS burden are poorly understood. In this study we investigated the effect of Ca2+ loads on ROS release from rat brain mitochondria with complex I partially inhibited by rotenone. The addition of 20 nm rotenone to brain mitochondria increased ROS release. Ca2+ (100 microm) alone had no effect on ROS release, but greatly potentiated the effects of rotenone. The effect of Ca2+ was decreased by ruthenium red. Ca2+-challenged mitochondria lose about 88% of their glutathione and 46% of their cytochrome c under these conditions, although this depends only on Ca2+ loading and not complex I inhibition. ADP in combination with oligomycin decreased the loss of glutathione and cytochrome c and free radical generation. Cyclosporin A alone was ineffective in preventing these effects, but augmented the protection provided by ADP and oligomycin. Non-specific permeabilization of mitochondria with alamethicin also increased the ROS signal, but only when combined with partial inhibition of complex I. These results demonstrate that Ca2+ can greatly increase ROS release by brain mitochondria when complex I is impaired.

Detection of hydrogen peroxide with Amplex Red: interference by NADH and reduced glutathione auto-oxidation.

We report here that reduced pyridine nucleotides and reduced glutathione result in an oxidation of Amplex Red by dioxygen that is dependent on the presence of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Concentrations of NADH and glutathione typically found in biological systems result in the oxidation of Amplex Red at a rate comparable to that produced, for example, by respiring mitochondria. The effects of NADH and glutathione in this assay system are likely to be the result of H(2)O(2) generation via a superoxide intermediate because both catalase and superoxide dismutase prevent the oxidation of Amplex Red. These results suggest caution in the assay of H(2)O(2) production in biological systems using the Amplex Red/HRP because the assay will also report the mobilization of NADH or glutathione. However, the interruption of this process by the addition of superoxide dismutase offers a simple and reliable method for establishing the source of the oxidant signal.

Spontaneous changes in mitochondrial membrane potential in single isolated brain mitochondria.

In this study we measured DeltaPsim in single isolated brain mitochondria using rhodamine 123. Mitochondria were attached to coverslips and superfused with K(+)-based HEPES-buffer medium supplemented with malate and glutamate. In approximately 70% of energized mitochondria we observed large amplitude spontaneous fluctuations in DeltaPsim with a time course comparable to that observed previously in mitochondria of intact cells. The other 30% of mitochondria maintained a stable DeltaPsim. Some of the "stable" mitochondria began to fluctuate spontaneously during the recording period. However, none of the initially fluctuating mitochondria became stable. Upon the removal of substrates from the medium or application of small amounts of Ca(2+), rhodamine 123 fluorescence rapidly dropped to background values in fluctuating mitochondria, while nonfluctuating mitochondria depolarized with a delay and often began to fluctuate before complete depolarization. The changes in DeltaPsim were not connected to oxidant production since reducing illumination or the addition of antioxidants had no effect on DeltaPsim. Fluctuating mitochondria did not lose calcein, nor was there any effect of cyclosporin A on DeltaPsim, which ruled out a contribution of permeability transition. We conclude that the fluctuations in DeltaPsim reflect an intermediate, unstable state of mitochondria that may lead to or reflect mitochondrial dysfunction.

Zinc inhibition of cellular energy production: implications for mitochondria and neurodegeneration.

An increasing body of evidence suggests that high intracellular free zinc promotes neuronal death by inhibiting cellular energy production. A number of targets have been postulated, including complexes of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, components of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and enzymes of glycolysis. Consequences of cellular zinc overload may include increased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and reduced cellular ATP levels. Additionally, zinc toxicity might involve zinc uptake by mitochondria and zinc induction of mitochondrial permeability transition. The present review discusses these processes with special emphasis on their potential involvement in brain injury.