Adoption of C-reactive protein point-of-care tests for the management of acute childhood infections in primary care in the Netherlands and England: a comparative health systems analysis.

BACKGROUND: The use of point of care (POC) tests varies across Europe, but research into what drives this variability is lacking. Focusing on CRP POC tests, we aimed to understand what factors contribute to high versus low adoption of the tests, and also to explore whether they are used in children. METHODS: We used a comparative qualitative case study approach to explore the implementation of CRP POC tests in the Netherlands and England. These countries were selected because although they have similar primary healthcare systems, the availability of CRP POC tests in General Practices is very different, being very high in the former and rare in the latter. The study design and analysis were informed by the non-adoption, abandonment, spread, scale-up and sustainability (NASSS) framework. Data were collected through a review of documents and interviews with stakeholders. Documents were identified through a scoping literature review, search of websites, and stakeholder recommendation. Stakeholders were selected purposively initially, and then by snowballing. Data were analysed thematically. RESULTS: Sixty-five documents were reviewed and 21 interviews were conducted. The difference in the availability of CRP POC tests is mainly because of differences at the wider national context level. In the two countries, early adopters of the tests advocated for their implementation through the generation of robust evidence and by engaging with all relevant stakeholders. This led to the inclusion of CRP POC tests in clinical guidelines in both countries. In the Netherlands, this mandated their reimbursement in accordance with Dutch regulations. Moreover, the prevailing better integration of health services enabled operational support from laboratories to GP practices. In England, the funding constraints of the National Health Service and the prioritization of alternative and less expensive antimicrobial stewardship interventions prevented the development of a reimbursement scheme. In addition, the lack of integration between health services limits the operational support to GP practices. In both countries, the availability of CRP POC tests for the management of children is a by-product of the test being available for adults. The tests are less used in children mainly because of concerns regarding their accuracy in this age-group. CONCLUSIONS: The engagement of early adopters combined with a more favourable and receptive macro level environment, including the role of clinical guidelines and their developers in determining which interventions are reimbursed and the operational support from laboratories to GP practices, led to the greater adoption of the tests in the Netherlands. In both countries, CRP POC tests, when available, are less used less in children. Organisations considering introducing POC tests into primary care settings need to consider how their implementation fits into the wider health system context to ensure achievable plans.

Exogenous surfactant restores lung function but not peripheral immunosuppression in ventilated surfactant-deficient rats.

The authors have previously shown that mechanical ventilation can result in increased pulmonary inflammation and suppressed peripheral leukocyte function. In the present study the effect of surfactant therapy on pulmonary inflammation and peripheral immune function in ventilated surfactant-deficient rats was assessed. Surfactant deficiency was induced by repeated lung lavage, treated rats with surfactant or left them untreated, and ventilated the rats during 2 hours. Nonventilated rats served as healthy control group. Expression of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 was measured in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), interleukin (IL)-1beta, and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) were measured in total lung homogenates. Outside the lung phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-induced lymphocyte proliferation, interferon (IFN)-gamma and IL-10 production, and natural killer activity were measured in splenocytes. After 2 hours of mechanical ventilation, expression of MIP-2, IL-1beta, and HSP70 increased significantly in the lungs of surfactant-deficient rats. Outside the lung, mitogen-induced proliferation and production of IFN-gamma and IL-10 reduced significantly. Only natural killer cell activity remained unaffected. Surfactant treatment significantly improved lung function, but could not prevent increased pulmonary expression of MIP-2, IL-1beta, and HSP70 and decreased peripheral mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-gamma and IL-10 production in vitro. In conclusion, 2 hours of mechanical ventilation resulted in increased lung inflammation and partial peripheral leukocyte suppression in surfactant-deficient rats. Surfactant therapy ameliorated lung function but could not prevent or restore peripheral immunosuppression. The authors postulate that peripheral immunosuppression may occur in ventilated surfactant deficient patients, which may enhance susceptibility for infections.

Ventilator-induced heat shock protein 70 and cytokine mRNA expression in a model of lipopolysaccharide-induced lung inflammation.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of mechanical ventilation with no PEEP (ZEEP) and 4 cmH(2)O PEEP on heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and pulmonary inflammatory cytokine expression in a model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced lung inflammation. DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective, randomized, experimental animal study. SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTIONS: We challenged 42 male Sprague-Dawley rats intratracheally with LPS. After 24 h the rats were randomly assigned to one of the ventilation strategies. Rats received either 4 h of mechanical ventilation with ZEEP or mechanical ventilation with 4 cmH(2)O PEEP. A nonventilated control group received LPS only. Lung pathology after LPS challenge was evaluated by histology to assess baseline lung injury. HSP70 and cytokine mRNA levels were measured in total lung homogenates. RESULTS: PaO(2) levels and lung histology revealed no deterioration after PEEP ventilation and severe deterioration after ZEEP ventilation. There was a significant higher expression of HSP70 and IL-1beta mRNA in the lungs of the ZEEP group than in the PEEP group and nonventilated controls. In the ZEEP group high HSP70 levels were correlated inversely with low IL-1beta mRNA and low IL-6 mRNA. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that HSP70 expression protects the lung against ventilator-induced lung injury by decreasing cytokine transcription in the lung.

Mechanical ventilation alters the immune response in children without lung pathology.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to examine the hypothesis that mechanical ventilation in association with anesthesia would alter the cytokine profile in infants without preexisting lung pathology. DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective observational study in pediatric intensive care unit in a university hospital. PATIENTS: Twelve infants who were subjected to an uncomplicated diagnostic cardiac catheterization procedure were studied. All subjects were ventilated with a volume control mode, 0.3 FIO(2), 4 cmH(2)O PEEP, and 10 ml/kg tidal volume. Volatile (servoflurane) anesthetics were given. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Tracheal aspirates and blood samples were obtained before and after 2 h of mechanical ventilation. In tracheal aspirates and in supernatants of stimulated whole-blood cultures cytokine concentrations were measured. In the tracheal aspirates the immune balance was characterized by a proinflammatory response pattern, with a significant increase in TNF-alpha and IL-6 concentrations; concentrations of anti-inflammatory mediators remained very low. The functional capacity of peripheral blood leukocytes to produce INF-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-6 in vitro was significantly decreased. This was accompanied by a significant decrease in the killing activity of natural killer cells. CONCLUSIONS: Two hours of servoflurane and mechanical ventilation using a tidal volume of 10 ml/kg is associated with remarkable changes in the immune response in infants without preexisting lung pathology undergoing cardiac catheterization. In the lungs the immune balance favors a proinflammatory response pattern without detectable concentrations of anti-inflammatory mediators. The Th1 immune response by peripheral blood leukocytes was decreased. The observed change in Th1/Th2 balance in favor of Th2 cytokine activity may be a systemic adaptation to the proinflammatory milieu in the lung.