Intestinal infection at onset of mycophenolic acid-associated chronic diarrhea in kidney transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diarrhea after kidney transplantation is often attributed to mycophenolic acid (MPA) toxicity. We hypothesize that intestinal infections contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic MPA-associated diarrhea. METHODS: In this retrospective study, all patients (n = 726) receiving a kidney transplant between 2000 and 2010 at the University Hospital Zurich were followed until July 2014 for occurrence of chronic diarrhea (≥4 weeks). Infectious triggers at diarrhea onset were assessed by reviewing medical history, stool microbiology, and histology of colon biopsies. RESULTS: In 46 patients (6.3% of the cohort), a total of 51 episodes of chronic diarrhea during MPA treatment were documented. The diarrhea episodes were often severe, as confirmed by significant weight loss. The cumulative incidence of chronic diarrhea was uniformly distributed throughout the post-transplant period, with 2.0%, 5.1%, and 9.6% at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively. Evidence was found for intestinal infection at diarrhea onset in 38 episodes (74.5%). Occurrence of diarrhea onset showed a seasonal distribution with peaks in April and October/November. Specific antimicrobial treatment alone was associated with a 19% resolution rate only, whereas combination with dose reduction of MPA or switch from mycophenolate mofetil to enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium resulted in a 22.7% and 76.5% resolution rate, respectively. Change to an MPA-free regimen was associated with a 100% resolution rate. CONCLUSION: These results provide first evidence for a contribution of intestinal infections in chronic post-transplant diarrhea associated with MPA treatment.

Effect of Twice-Yearly Denosumab on Prevention of Bone Mineral Density Loss in De Novo Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

We conducted an open-label, prospective, randomized trial to assess the efficacy and safety of RANKL inhibition with denosumab to prevent the loss of bone mineral density (BMD) in the first year after kidney transplantation. Ninety kidney transplant recipients were randomized 1:1 2 weeks after surgery to receive denosumab (60 mg at baseline and 6 months) or no treatment. After 12 months, total lumbar spine areal BMD (aBMD) increased by 4.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 3.3-5.9%) in 46 patients in the denosumab group and decreased by -0.5% (95% CI -1.8% to 0.9%) in 44 patients in the control group (between-group difference 5.1% [95% CI 3.1-7.0%], p < 0.0001). Denosumab also increased aBMD at the total hip by 1.9% (95% CI, 0.1-3.7%; p = 0.035) over that in the control group at 12 months. High-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography in a subgroup of 24 patients showed that denosumab increased volumetric BMD at the distal tibia and radius (all p < 0.05). Biomarkers of bone turnover (C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen, procollagen type I N-terminal propeptide) markedly decreased with denosumab (all p < 0.0001). Episodes of cystitis and asymptomatic hypocalcemia occurred more often with denosumab, whereas graft function, rate of rejections, and incidence of opportunistic infections were similar. In conclusion, denosumab increased BMD in the first year after kidney transplantation but was associated with more frequent episodes of urinary tract infection.

Spectophotometric intracutaneous analysis: an investigation on photodamaged skin of immunocompromised patients.

BACKGROUND: SIAscopy (Spectrophotometric Intracutaneous Analysis) enables non-invasive analysis of the skin. OBJECTIVE: We wanted to determine whether SIAscopy is able to detect and differentiate the skin chromophores melanin, collagen and haemoglobin and the influence of immunosuppressive drugs and other known risk factors for non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). METHODS: Volunteers and patients were measured by SIAscopy at six spots on sun-exposed and two spots on sun-protected skin. Measurements were transformed by SIAmetrics into arbitrary units and statistically analysed. RESULTS: Melanin was shown to be higher with age (+1.73759 a.u.; P < 0.0001), sun exposure (+47.03998 a.u.; P < 0.0001), immunosuppression (+10.48526 a.u.; P < 0.0001) and lower in males (-26.50952 a.u.; P < 0.0001). Collagen was lower with increasing age (-0.29162 a.u.; P < 0.0001) and sun exposure (-6.85586 a.u.; P < 0.0001) but higher with male sex (+8.34251 a.u.; P < 0.0001) and immunosuppression (+5.79171 a.u.; P = 0.0001). Haemoglobin was lower with increasing age (-0.23833 a.u.; P = 0.0005), but higher with male sex (+18.51976 a.u.; P < 0.0001) and sun exposure (+13.74523 a.u.; P < 0.0001). Haemoglobin content was not associated to immunosuppression. CONCLUSION: Our results encourage the use of SIAscopy as a tool to better gauge an individual patient's NMSC risk factors. Further studies should help to better delineate SIAscopy as a prognostic tool.

Five-year outcomes in kidney transplant patients converted from cyclosporine to everolimus: the randomized ZEUS study.

ZEUS study was an open-label, 12-month, multicenter study in which 300 de novo kidney transplant recipients were randomized to continue receiving cyclosporine (CsA) or convert to everolimus at 4.5 months posttransplant. Five-year follow-up data were available for 245/269 patients (91.1%) who completed the core 12-month study (123 everolimus, 109 CsA). At 5 years, adjusted estimated GFR was 66.2 mL/min/1.73 m(2) with everolimus versus 60.9 mL/min/1.73 m(2) with CsA; the mean difference was 5.3 mL/min/1.73 m(2) in favor of everolimus (95% CI 2.4, 8.3; p < 0.001 [intent-to-treat population]). In a post hoc analysis of patients remaining on study drug at 5 years (everolimus 77, CsA 86), mean difference was 8.2 mL/min/1.73 m(2) (95% CI 4.3, 12.1; p < 0.001) in favor of everolimus. The cumulative incidence of biopsy-proven acute rejection postrandomization was 13.6% with everolimus versus 7.5% with CsA (p = 0.095), largely accounted for by grade I rejection (16/21 patients and 7/11 patients, respectively). Postrandomization, graft loss, mortality, serious adverse events and neoplasms were similar in both arms. In conclusion, conversion of kidney transplant patients to everolimus at 4.5 months posttransplant is associated with a significant improvement in renal function that is maintained to at least 5 years. The increase in early mild acute rejection did not affect long-term graft function.

A randomized study evaluating cinacalcet to treat hypercalcemia in renal transplant recipients with persistent hyperparathyroidism.

Persistent hyperparathyroidism (HPT) after kidney transplantation (KTx) is associated with hypercalcemia, hypophosphatemia and abnormally high levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). In this randomized trial, cinacalcet was compared to placebo for the treatment of hypercalcemia in adult patients with persistent HPT after KTx. Subjects were randomized 1:1 to cinacalcet or placebo with randomization stratified by baseline corrected total serum calcium levels (≤11.2 mg/dL [2.80 mmol/L] or >11.2 mg/dL [2.80 mmol/L]). The primary end point was achievement of a mean corrected total serum calcium value<10.2 mg/dL (2.55 mmol/L) during the efficacy period. The two key secondary end points were percent change in bone mineral density (BMD) at the femoral neck and absolute change in phosphorus; 78.9% cinacalcet- versus 3.5% placebo-treated subjects achieved the primary end point with a difference of 75.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 63.8, 87.1), p<0.001. There was no statistical difference in the percent change in BMD at the femoral neck between cinacalcet and placebo groups, p=0.266. The difference in the change in phosphorus between the two arms was 0.45 mg/dL (95% CI: 0.26, 0.64), p<0.001 (nominal). No new safety signals were detected. In conclusion, hypercalcemia and hypophosphatemia were effectively corrected after treatment with cinacalcet in patients with persistent HPT after KTx.

Differences in Medication Adherence between Living and Deceased Donor Kidney Transplant Patients.

BACKGROUND: Literature review suggests that adherence to immunosuppressive drugs may be lower in recipients of living than of deceased donor kidney grafts, possibly because of profile differences. OBJECTIVE: To compare the level of immunosuppressive adherence levels between patients with deceased and living (-related; -unrelated) donor grafts in Switzerland. METHODS: Using data from two similar cross-sectional studies at two transplant centers in Switzerland, the level of adherence between the two groups was compared. Medication adherence was assessed by self-report or electronic monitoring. Possible explanatory factors included age, beliefs regarding immunosuppressive drugs, depressive symptomatology, pre-emptive transplantation, and the number of transplants received, were also considered. Data were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Unadjusted non-adherence odds were 2 to 3 times higher in living-related than deceased donor transplantation (ORs: 2.09-3.05; p<0.05). Adjustment for confounders showed that these differences were associated most with the younger age of living-related subjects and the belief that immunosuppressive drugs are less important for living-related donations. CONCLUSION: There is a lower immunosuppressive adherence in recipients of living-related donor kidneys, possibly owing to differences in patient profile (ie, health beliefs regarding their immunosuppressive needs), knowledge of which may enhance adherence if addressed.

Excessive activation of the alternative complement pathway in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

OBJECTIVES: The complement system is involved in many immune complex-mediated kidney diseases, yet its role in the pathogenesis of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) has not been examined in detail. METHODS AND RESULTS: Screening of the glycoproteome of urine samples from ADPKD patients revealed that levels of complement factor B (CFB), serpin peptidase inhibitor, complement component 1 inhibitor (SERPING1) and complement component 9 (C9) increased, whereas complement component 1, r subcomponent-like (C1RL), CD55 and CD59 levels decreased with disease progression. Immunostaining and Western blot analysis confirmed the enhanced expression of CFB and C9 in cystic kidneys from ADPKD patients. Immunostaining also showed that the expressions of CFB and C9 in renal biopsy tissues from patients with other types of chronic kidney disease were lower than in tissues from ADPKD patients. The effect of the complement inhibitor rosmarinic acid (RMA) was evaluated in Pkd1(-/-) mice and Han:SPRD Cy/+ rats. Compared with vehicle-treated Pkd1(-/-) animals, RMA-treated mice had significantly lower serum creatinine (-50%) and blood urea nitrogen (-78%) levels, two kidneys/body weight ratio (-60%) and renal cystic index (-60%). Similar results were found in Cy/+ rats. Lower numbers of Ki67-positive nuclei and inflammatory cells and reduced fibrosis were observed in both animal models upon treatment with RMA. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that excessive activation of the alternative complement pathway is associated with ADPKD progression, probably mediated by cyst-lining epithelial cell proliferation, tubulointerstitial inflammatory cell infiltration and fibrosis. Targeting the complement system might represent a new therapeutic strategy for ADPKD.

Bcl-2 inhibition to overcome memory cell barriers in transplantation.

Memory T cells (Tm) represent a major barrier for immunosuppression and tolerance induction after solid organ transplantation. Taking into consideration the critical role of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway in the generation and maintenance of Tm, we developed a new concept to deplete alloreactive Tm by targeting Bcl-2 proteins. The small-molecule Bcl-2/Bcl-XL inhibitor ABT-737 efficiently induced apoptosis in alloreactive Tm in vitro and in vivo and prolonged skin graft survival in sensitized recipients. A short course of ABT-737 induction therapy prevented Tm-mediated resistance in a donor-specific transfusion model and allowed mixed chimerism induction across Tm barriers. Since Bcl-2 inhibitors yielded encouraging safety results in cancer trials, this novel approach might represent a substantial advance to prevent allograft rejection and induce tolerance in sensitized recipients.

Association of BK viremia with human leukocyte antigen mismatches and acute rejection, but not with type of calcineurin inhibitor.

INTRODUCTION: BK viremia and polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVN) represent a significant problem after kidney transplantation. Both are associated with intensified immunosuppression, but other risk factors and the impact of a screening program on outcome are incompletely understood. METHODS: Here, we report on the short- and long-term outcome of a cohort of patients, who were transplanted in 2006/2007 and included in a newly introduced systematic 3-monthly screening for BK viremia at the University Hospital Zurich. In patients testing positive for BK viremia, screening frequency was intensified and immunosuppression reduced. Patients with suspected PVN underwent transplant biopsy. RESULTS: Among 152 included patients, 49 (32%) tested positive for BK viremia, but only 8 developed biopsy-proven PVN. BK viremia had a significant impact on estimated glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria in the first 2 years. Acute rejection episodes and the number of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) mismatches were the strongest independent predictors of BK viremia in a multiple logistic model. In contrast, no particular immunosuppressive agent or regimen was associated with enhanced risk. CONCLUSION: Taken together, systematic BK viremia screening led to detection of a high percentage of viremic patients. With adjustment of immunosuppression, an excellent outcome was achieved. The independent association of HLA mismatches with BK viremia suggests impaired polyomavirus immunosurveillance in highly mismatched allografts.

Homozygous and compound heterozygous mutations in the ATP6V1B1 gene in patients with renal tubular acidosis and sensorineural hearing loss.

Distal renal tubular acidosis (dRTA) is characterized by the inability to excrete acid in the renal collecting ducts resulting in inappropriately alkaline urine and hyperchloremic (normal anion gap) metabolic acidosis in the context of a normal (or near-normal) glomerular filtration rate. Inborn dRTA can be due to autosomal dominant or recessive gene defects. Clinical symptoms vary from mild acidosis, incidental detection of kidney stones or renal tract calcification to severe findings such as failure to thrive, severe metabolic acidosis, and nephrocalcinosis. The majority of patients with recessive dRTA present with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). Few cases with abnormal widening of the vestibular aqueduct have been described with dRTA. Mutations in three different genes have been identified, namely SLC4A1, ATP6V1B1, and ATP6V0A4. Patients with mutations in the ATP6V1B1 proton pump subunit develop dRTA and in most of the cases sensorineural hearing loss early in childhood. We present two patients from two different and non-consanguineous families with dRTA and SNHL. Direct sequencing of the ATP6V1B1 gene revealed that one patient harbors two homozygous mutations and the other one is a compound heterozygous. To our knowledge, this is the first case in the literature describing homozygosity in the same dRTA gene on both alleles.

Conversion from cyclosporine to everolimus at 4.5 months posttransplant: 3-year results from the randomized ZEUS study.

The long-term effect of conversion from calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) therapy to an mTOR inhibitor requires clarification. Following completion of the 12-month, open-label, multicenter ZEUS study, in which 300 kidney transplant recipients were randomized to continue cyclosporine (CsA) or convert to everolimus at 4.5 months posttransplant, outcomes were assessed at month 36 (n = 284; 94.7%). CNI therapy was reintroduced in 28.4% of everolimus patients by month 36. The primary efficacy endpoint, estimated glomerular filtration rate (Nankivell, ANCOVA) was significantly higher with everolimus versus the CsA group at month 24 (7.6 mL/min/1.73 m(2) , 95%CI 4.3, 11.0 mL/min/1.73 m(2) ; p < 0.001) and month 36 (7.5 mL/min/1.73 m(2) , 95%CI 3.6, 11.4 mL/min/1.73 m(2) ; p < 0.001). The incidence of biopsy-proven acute rejection from randomization to month 36 was 13.0% in the everolimus arm and 4.8% in the CsA arm (p = 0.015). Patient and graft survival, as well as incidences of malignancy, severe infections and hospitalization, were similar between groups. Kidney transplant patients who are converted from CsA to everolimus at month 4.5 and who remain on everolimus thereafter may achieve a significant improvement in renal function that is maintained to 3 years. There was a significantly higher rate of rejection in the everolimus arm but this did not exert a deleterious effect by 3 years posttransplant.

[Migraine-induced kidney stones?]. / Nierensteine durch Migräne?

A 42-year old woman was referred for a metabolic evaluation after two episodes of kidney stones. Her laboratory results revealed a normal anion-gap metabolic acidosis, a marked hypocitraturia (0,6 mmol/24h; norm 1,6-4,5) and a urinary pH of 7,0 confirming renal tubular acidosis (RTA). We identified topiramate, our patient's medication for migraine, as the cause of the RTA. Topiramate, a carboanhydrase inhibitor leads to RTA of a mixed (proximal and distal) type and thus significantly increases the risk for kidney stones.

Resistance to ABT-737 in activated T lymphocytes: molecular mechanisms and reversibility by inhibition of the calcineurin-NFAT pathway.

Dynamic regulation of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway controls central and peripheral lymphocyte deletion, and may interfere with the pro-apoptotic potency of B-cell lymphoma 2 inhibitors such as ABT-737. By following a T-cell receptor (TCR) transgenic population of alloantigen-specific T cells, we found that sensitivity to ABT-737 radically changed during the course of allo-specific immune responses. Particularly, activated T cells were fully resistant to ABT-737 during the first days after antigen recognition. This phenomenon was caused by a TCR-calcineurin-nuclear factor of activated T cells-dependent upregulation of A1, and was therefore prevented by cyclosporine A (CsA). As a result, exposure to ABT-737 after alloantigen recognition induced selection of alloreactive T cells in vivo, whereas in combination with low-dose CsA, ABT-737 efficiently depleted alloreactive T cells in murine host-versus-graft and graft-versus-host models. Thus, ABT-737 resistance is not a prerogative of neoplastic cells, but it physiologically occurs in T cells after antigen recognition. Reversibility of this process by calcineurin inhibitors opens new pharmacological opportunities to modulate this process in the context of cancer, autoimmunity and transplantation.

[Management of renal anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease: the role of the general practitioner]. / Prise en charge de l'anémie chez les patients atteints de maladie renale chronique: rôle du médecin gênéraliste.

The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is high and diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of CKD. One of the most common complications of CKD is anemia, the frequency and severity of which increase as kidney failure progresses. Renal anemia is primarily caused by reduced renal erythropoietin production. It can also be associated with iron deficiency caused by reduced iron absorption, occult blood loss and impaired iron mobilization. This work provides an overview of the management of renal anemia with focus on intravenous iron therapy, which is more effective than oral iron administration in CKD due to reduced iron absorption.

Reversal of UVA skin photosensitivity and DNA damage in kidney transplant recipients by replacing azathioprine.

Azathioprine is associated with enhanced skin photosensitivity to ultraviolet A (UVA) and leads to incorporation of 6-thioguanine (6-TG) into DNA of dividing cells. Unlike canonical DNA, 6-TG DNA is damaged by UVA, which comprises more than 90% of the ultraviolet reaching earth. Skin photosensitivity to UVA and UVB was measured in 48 kidney transplant patients immunosuppressed either by azathioprine (n = 32) or mycophenolate (n = 16). In 23 patients, azathioprine was subsequently replaced by mycophenolate and skin photosensitivity, DNA 6-TG content in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and susceptibility to UVA-induced DNA damage were monitored for up to 2 years. The mean minimal erythema dose to UVA on azathioprine was twofold lower than on mycophenolate. Three months after replacing azathioprine by mycophenolate mofetil, the minimal erythema dose to UVA had increased from 15 to 25 J/cm(2) (p < 0.001) accompanied by reduced DNA 6-TG content. P53 protein expression in irradiated skin indicated reduced susceptibility to UVA-induced DNA damage. 6-TG DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells remained measurable for over 2 years. Replacing azathioprine selectively reduced the skin photosensitivity to UVA, attenuated UVA-induced skin DNA damage, and is likely based on incorporated 6-TG in DNA.

Impact of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibition on autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease.

Autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by the progressive development of countless cysts in both kidneys, which compress the cyst-free renal parenchyma, leading to a loss of renal function and the need for renal replacement therapy and/or kidney transplantation in ∼50% of affected patients. In animal models of experimental polycystic kidney disease, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors sirolimus and everolimus effectively reduce cyst growth and loss of renal function. Furthermore, an analysis of renal transplant patients with ADPKD has shown that cystic kidney and liver volumes regress more on a sirolimus-based regimen than on a calcineurin inhibitor-based immunosuppressive regimen. Several prospective controlled clinical trials have been initiated to investigate whether mTOR inhibitors retard cyst growth and slow renal functional deterioration in patients with ADPKD. Study results are expected in 2010.

Donor-derived aspergillosis from use of a solid organ recipient as a multiorgan donor.

The growing need for organs and the scarcity of donors has resulted in an increased use of extended criteria donors. We report a case where a recipient of a cardiac graft was used as an organ donor. Death of the recipient occurred 9 days after transplantation and was attributed to presumed cerebral hemorrhage, which post mortem was diagnosed as invasive aspergillosis of the brain. One recipient of a kidney transplant lost the graft due to infection with Aspergillus fumigatus, whereas prompt initiation of therapy successfully prevented disseminated aspergillosis in the other recipients. Despite the pressure to extend the use of organs by lowering the acceptance criteria, organs should only be accepted if the cause of death of the donors is unequivocally explained.

Molecular evidence of interhuman transmission in an outbreak of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia among renal transplant recipients.

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of this infection are poorly understood, and the exact mode of transmission remains unclear. Recent studies reported clusters of PCP among immunocompromised patients, raising the suspicion of interhuman transmission. An unexpected increase of the incidence of PCP cases in our nephrology outpatient clinic prompted us to conduct a detailed analysis. Genotyping of 7 available specimens obtained from renal transplant recipients was performed using multi-locus DNA sequence typing (MLST). Fragments of 4 variable regions of the P. jirovecii genome (ITS1, 26S, mt26S, beta-tubulin) were sequenced and compared with those of 4 independent control patients. MLST analysis revealed identical sequences of the 4 regions among all 7 renal allograft recipients with available samples, indicating an infection with the same P. jirovecii genotype. We observed that all but 1 of the 19 PCP-infected transplant recipients had at least 1 concomitant visit with another PCP-infected patient within a common waiting area. This study provides evidence that nosocomial transmission among immunocompromised patients may have occurred in our nephrology outpatient clinic. Our findings have epidemiological implications and suggest that prolonged chemoprophylaxis for PCP may be warranted in an era of more intense immunosuppression.