Autonomic and EEG patterns during eyes-closed rest and transcendental meditation (TM) practice: the basis for a neural model of TM practice.

In this single-blind within-subject study, autonomic and EEG variables were compared during 10-min, order-balanced eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation (TM) sessions. TM sessions were distinguished by (1) lower breath rates, (2) lower skin conductance levels, (3) higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia levels, and (4) higher alpha anterior-posterior and frontal EEG coherence. Alpha power was not significantly different between conditions. These results were seen in the first minute and were maintained throughout the 10-min sessions. TM practice appears to (1) lead to a state fundamentally different than eyes-closed rest; (2) result in a cascade of events in the central and autonomic nervous systems, leading to a rapid change in state (within a minute) that was maintained throughout the TM session; and (3) be best distinguished from other conditions through autonomic and EEG alpha coherence patterns rather than alpha power. Two neural networks that may mediate these effects are suggested. The rapid shift in physiological functioning within the first minute might be mediated by a "neural switch" in prefrontal areas inhibiting activity in specific and nonspecific thalamocortical circuits. The resulting "restfully alert" state might be sustained by a basal ganglia-corticothalamic threshold regulation mechanism automatically maintaining lower levels of cortical excitability.

Autonomic patterns during respiratory suspensions: possible markers of Transcendental Consciousness.

In two experiments, we investigated physiological correlates of transcendental consciousness during Transcendental Meditation sessions. In the first, experimenter-initiated bells, based on observed physiological patterns, marked three phases during a Transcendental Meditation session in 16 individuals. Interrater reliability between participant and experimenter classification of experiences at each bell was quite good. During phases including transcendental consciousness experiences, skin conductance responses and heart rate deceleration occurred at the onset of respiratory suspensions or reductions in breath volume. In the second experiment, this autonomic pattern was compared with that during forced breath holding. Phasic autonomic activity was significantly higher at respiratory suspension onset than at breath holding onset. These easily measured markers could help focus research on the existence and characteristics of transcendental consciousness.

Anger expression correlates with platelet aggregation.

Potential relationships between increased platelet aggregability and such psychological characteristics as hostility and anger were investigated as part of a larger intervention study investigating the potential efficacy of stress-reduction treatments. Participants performed 6-minute mental arithmetic tests under time pressure. Blood was sampled during the first minute of the task and whole blood platelet aggregation was measured in an aggregometer, using collagen and ADP. To assess anger and hostility, the authors used Spielberger's State-Trait Anger and Anger Expression scales together with the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale. The authors found positive correlations between collagen-induced platelet aggregation and outwardly expressed anger, as measured by the Anger Expression Scale. The findings suggested that modes of anger expression may be associated with increased platelet aggregation. If confirmed by future studies, this finding could provide a mechanism for the putative connection between anger/hostility and coronary heart disease.

A controlled study of the effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on cardiovascular reactivity and ambulatory blood pressure.

Cardiovascular responses to stress reactivity has been proposed as a risk factor for hypertension. In this study, we evaluated the effects of stress reduction on both laboratory cardiovascular reactivity and ambulatory blood pressure in real life on 39 normotensive male subjects who were pretested for ambulatory blood pressure and cardiovascular reactivity to stress using a battery of laboratory stressors. Thereafter, subjects were randomly assigned to practice either the Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique or a cognitive-based stress education control (SEC) for four months. After 4 months, there was no change in cardiovascular response to stressors between the TM and control groups. However, the subjects regularly practicing TM demonstrated a significant reduction of 9 mm Hg (p < .04) in average ambulatory DBP compared to controls. Since ambulatory BP monitoring has been shown to be a better predictor of cardiovascular complications of hypertension than clinic BP, this finding may have important implications for primary prevention of CVD in normotensive subjects.

Elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs.

Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels were measured in 270 men and 153 women who were experienced practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs, mental techniques practiced twice daily, sitting quietly with the eyes closed. These were compared according to sex and 5-year age grouping to 799 male and 453 female nonmeditators. The mean DHEA-S levels in the TM group were higher in all 11 of the age groups measured in women and in 6 of 7 5-year age groups over 40 in men. There were no systematic differences in younger men. Simple regression using TM-group data revealed that this effect was independent of diet, body mass index, and exercise. The mean TM-group levels measured in all women and in the older men were generally comparable to those of nonmeditator groups 5 to 10 years younger. These findings suggest that some characteristics of TM practitioners are modifying the age-related deterioration in DHEA-S secretion by the adrenal cortex.

The physiology of meditation: a review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response.

While for centuries a wakeful and tranquil state or experience variously called "samadhi," "pure awareness," or "enlightenment" had been said to be a normal experience and the goal of meditation in Vedic, Buddhist, and Taoist traditions, there was little known about this behavior until recently, when the practice of "transcendental meditation" (TM) became available for study in Western scientific laboratories. Derived from the Vedic tradition, TM is unique because it requires no special circumstances or effort for practice. Based upon a wide spectrum of physiological data on TM, we hypothesize that meditation is an integrated response with peripheral circulatory and metabolic changes subserving increased central nervous activity. Consistent with the subjective description of meditation as a very relaxed but, at the same time, a very alert state, it is likely that such findings during meditation as increased cardiac output, probable increased cerebral blood flow, and findings reminiscent of the "extraordinary" character of classical reports: apparent cessation of CO2 generation by muscle, fivefold plasma AVP elevation, and EEG synchrony play critical roles in this putative response.

Influence of a Maharishi Ayur-vedic herbal preparation on age-related visual discrimination.

An ancient system of natural medicine--Maharishi Ayur-Vedic--prescribes certain herbal formulas to enhance cognitive functioning, prevent illness, and alleviate the detrimental effects of the aging process. A double-blind study was conducted to test the effect of an Ayurvedic herbal preparation, Maharishi Amrit Kalash (MAK), on an age-related alertness task. Forty-eight men over 35 years of age were randomly assigned to receive MAK tablets or a closely matched placebo twice daily for six weeks. A visual discrimination task consisted of the identification of the exact location of a stimulus "v" within an array of x symbols in tachistoscopic presentations. The MAK group improved significantly more in their performance of this task after three and six weeks of treatment relative to the placebo group. Performance was highly correlated with age, and because successful performance apparently requires an unrestricted flow of homogeneous attention as well as focalized concentration, it is concluded that MAK may enhance attentional capacity or alertness, and thus reverse some of the detrimental cognitive effects of aging.

Beta-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in subjects practicing transcendental meditation.

Several studies suggest that behavioral techniques such as meditation and relaxation may be associated with reduced end organ adrenergic receptor sensitivity. Thus far the evidence supporting this hypothesis has been indirect. We present preliminary findings showing reduced beta-adrenergic receptor sensitivity in a group of subjects practicing Transcendental Meditation. The meditation group (N = 10), compared to controls (N = 10), had a lower percentage of functional lymphocyte beta-adrenergic receptors (p = 0.009), but showed no difference in total receptor number or plasma catecholamines. There were no differences between the groups in Type A behavior, the Type A components, exercise, or family history of hypertension. The results provide some support for studies postulating that meditation is associated with reduced sympathetic adrenergic receptor sensitivity, and provide encouragement for the efficacy of receptor measurement in psychophysiology research.

Injuries in women's gymnastics. The state of the art.

This article takes a three-stage approach to the topic of injuries in women's gymnastics. In the first stage, we review the literature and summarize our current knowledge of injury rates, injuries in specific events, and anatomical location of injuries. In the second, we critically evaluate the relative contributions of these studies in terms of their generalizability, methods, and conceptual approaches. Finally, we present possible directions for future research in the area of women's gymnastic injuries.

Injuries in women's gymnastics. The state of the art.

This article takes a three-stage approach to the topic of injuries in women's gymnastics. In the first stage, we review the literature and summarize our current knowledge of injury rates, injuries in specific events, and anatomical location of injuries. In the second, we critically evaluate the relative contributions of these studies in terms of their generalizability, methods, and conceptual approaches. Finally, we present possible directions for future research in the area of women's gymnastic injuries.

Long-term endocrinologic changes in subjects practicing the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program.

The Transcendental Meditation (TM) and a more advanced program, the TM-Sidhi program, have been reported to produce a number of acute and long-term metabolic and electrophysiologic changes. To investigate the possibility that the practice of these techniques may be associated with long-term endocrinologic changes, we prospectively evaluated 11 male subjects before and over a 3-year period after starting the TM-Sidhi program. A progressive decrease in serum TSH, growth hormone, and prolactin levels occurred over the 3 years while no consistent change in cortisol, T4, or T3 levels was observed. These results suggest that the long-term practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi program may have effects on neuroendocrine function. Further studies using 24-hr monitoring with frequent blood sampling will, however, be needed to fully assess the significance of the simultaneous decline of the anterior pituitary hormones with maintenance of levels of hormones from peripheral endocrine glands.

Academic achievement and the paired Hoffman reflex in students practicing meditation.

The paired H reflex, considered to be the electrically evoked counterpart of the monosynaptic stretch reflex, provides a measure of motoneuron excitability under a variety of experimental and clinical conditions. It also offers a potentially useful tool in examining the neurophysiologic basis of alterations in reflex response in different states of awareness. This study investigated the relationship between the paired H reflex and academic achievement in students practicing the Transcendental Meditation program. The paired H reflex correlated significantly with grade point average, but not with SAT scores or any of three IQ measurements. These results suggest that the facilitation period of the paired H-reflex recovery curve may be a useful indicator of academic achievement, perhaps as a result of its relationship to awareness or wakefulness level.

Electrophysiologic characteristics of respiratory suspension periods occurring during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation Program.

In a study designed to identify the electrophysiologic characteristics of the Transcendental Meditation Program, 52 periods of spontaneous respiratory suspension (RS) were observed in 18 subjects during the practice of this program. These periods were correlated with some but not all the subjective experiences of pure consciousness. Nineteen RS periods (belonging to 11 subjects) free from any artifact were selected for EEG analysis. The mean total EEG coherence over all frequencies and over nine derivations for TM subjects showed a significant increase during the RS periods as compared to pre- and post-RS control periods. There was no significant change in mean total EEG coherence in a control group of 30 subjects voluntarily holding their breath. The heart rate showed a significant decrease during the RS periods in both the experimental and control groups, whereas there was no significant change in EEG alpha power in either group. These findings extend those of previous studies and help characterize the physiologic correlates of the state of pure consciousness during the TM program.

Systolic blood pressure and long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program: effects of TM on systolic blood pressure.

Systolic blood pressure was measured in 112 subjects practicing the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi programs. The subjects were between the ages of 35 and 64 years. A significant difference was found between the systolic blood pressures of subjects (matched for sex, race, and general educational background) practicing the TM and TM-Sidhi programs and norms for the general population. This difference was independent of diet and exercise patterns but related to length of time meditating. A significant difference was also found between short-term (under 5 years) and long-term (over 5 years) participants of the TM program, covarying for age. No previous reports exist concerning the long-term effects of the TM program on blood pressure. Despite methodological problems associated with cross sectional data, the findings suggest the beneficial effects of the long-term practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi programs on systolic blood pressure. Even if self-selection plays a role, the characteristics of an easily identifiable group already showing traits beneficial to the general population deserves further study.

Geriatric medical education: a project in faculty development.

To increase the competence of physicians to practice and teach geriatric medicine, the Office of Geriatric Medicine at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine in Cleveland, Ohio, offered an 11-week course to interested physicians on the faculty. This course, "Medical Management of the Aged--A State of the Art Symposium for Medical Faculty," was conducted as part of an overall plan of the Office to enhance faculty and curriculum development in geriatrics within the School. The weekly sessions consisted of clinical and research information presented by recognized experts in the field of geriatric medicine. Of the 52 formal registrants, 79 per cent were physicians and were from such fields of specialization as internal medicine, family medicine, and psychiatry. The mean attendance was 37. An overview and evaluation of the geriatric faculty development program is given.

Modification of the paired H reflex through the transcendental meditation and TM-Sidhi program.

The paired H reflex, considered to be the electrically evoked counterpart of the monosynaptic stretch reflex, provides a measure of motoneuron excitability under a variety of experimental and clinical conditions. This study investigated the longitudinal effects of an advanced meditation program (the TM-Sidhi program) on the paired H reflex at nine delay intervals (50, 70, 100, 150, 200, 250, 333, 500, and 1000 ms). An experimental group of 14 subjects with no mental or motor disorders was instructed in an advanced TM program known as the TM-Sidhi program and the control group (N = 8) practiced the TM technique only. The amplitude of the paired H reflex was significantly facilitated in the experimental male subjects at intervals 100 through 250 ms, whereas the experimental female subjects and controls showed no significant change. These results extend previous studies showing distinct physiologic differences between subjects practicing these two programs and are of additional interest because they show that the H reflex can be modified in normal subjects.

Intersubject EEG coherence: is consciousness a field?

EEG coherence was measured between pairs of three different subjects during a one-hour period practice of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program. Coherence between subjects was evaluated for two sequential fifteen minute periods. On six experimental days, these periods preceded and then coincided with a fifteen minute period during which 2500 students participated in the TM-Sidhi program at a course over 1000 miles away. After the course had ended coherence was evaluated on six control days. It was found that intersubject coherence was generally low, between 0.35 and 0.4, with coherence in the alpha (8-12 Hz) and beta (16-20 Hz) frequencies significantly higher than at other frequencies. On the experimental days, intersubject EEG coherence increased during the experimental period relative to the fifteen minute baseline period immediately preceding the experimental period. Coherence increased significantly from baseline to experimental periods on experimental days compared with control days (p = 0.02). This effect was particularly evident in the alpha and beta frequencies. The results reinforce previous sociological studies showing decreased social disorder in the vicinity of TM and TM-Sidhi participants and are discussed in terms of a field theoretic view of consciousness.

The effects of the transcendental meditation and TM-Sidhi program on the aging process.

To evaluate the effects of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Sidhi program on the aging process, a standardized test of biological aging, utilizing auditory threshold, near point vision, and systolic blood pressure, was given to a cross-sectional group (N = 84) with a mean age of 53 years. There were 11 controls, 33 short-term TM and TM-Sidhi participants, and 40 long-term participants. The mean biological age of the controls was 2.2 years younger than for the general population; of the short-term TM subjects, 5.0 years younger; of the long-term TM subjects, 12.0 years younger. The difference between the groups was significant covarying for a diet factor. Also, there was a significant correlation between length of time practicing the TM program and biological age (r = -0.46). Together with numerous physiological and psychological studies conducted on the TM and TM-Sidhi program, this study suggests that the TM program may affect certain neural mechanisms which in turn influence age correlated physiological variables.

Frontal EEG coherence, H-reflex recovery, concept learning, and the TM-Sidhi program.

This study investigated the relationship between frontal bilateral EEG coherence, H-reflex recovery (an index of CNS flexibility), and solution of a concept learning problem on which the correct concept is reversed during the task. It also assessed the longitudinal effect of the TM-Sidhi program on concept learning among the same sample of college students. Frontal EEG coherence and H-reflex recovery were significantly correlated with flexible performance on the concept learning task following the reversal. Instruction in the TM-Sidhi program significantly improved efficiency of concept-learning performance before the concept was reversed, although not afterward.