Using poly(3-aminophenylboronic acid) thin film with binding-induced ion flux blocking for amperometric detection of hemoglobin A1c.

This study reports a novel enzyme-free, label-free amperometric method for direct detection of hemoglobin A1c (Hb(A1c)), a potent biomarker for diabetes diagnosis and prognosis. The method relies on an electrode modified with poly(3-aminophenylboronic acid) (PAPBA) nanoparticles (20-50 nm) and a sensing scheme named "binding-induced ion flux blocking." The PAPBA nanoparticles were characterized by FT-IR, XPS, TEM, and SEM. Being a polyaniline derivative, PAPBA showed an ion-dependent redox behavior, in which insertion or extraction of ions into or out of PABPA occurred for charge balance during the electron transfer process. The polymer allowed Hb(A1c) selectively bound to its surface via forming the cis-diol linkage between the boronic acid and sugar moieties. Voltammetric analyses showed that Hb(A1c) binding decreased the redox current of PAPBA; however, the binding did not alter the redox potentials and the apparent diffusivities of ions. This suggests that the redox current of PAPBA decreased due to an Hb(A1c) binding-induced ion flux blocking mechanism, which was then verified and characterized through an in situ electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) study. Assay with Hb(A1c) by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) indicates that the peak current of a PAPBA electrode has a linear dependence on the logarithm of Hb(A1c) concentration ranging from 0.975 to 156 µM. The Hb(A1c) assay also showed high selectivity against ascorbic acid, dopamine, uric acid, glucose and bovine serum albumin. This study has demonstrated a new method for developing an electrochemical Hb(A1c) biosensor and can be extended to other label-free, indicator-free protein biosensors based on a similar redox polymer electrode.

Synthesis of redox polymer nanobeads and nanocomposites for glucose biosensors.

Redox polymer nanobeads of branched polyethylenimine binding with ferrocene (BPEI-Fc) were synthesized using a simple chemical process. The functionality and morphology of the redox polymer nanobeads were investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This hydrophilic redox nanomaterial could be mixed with glucose oxidase (GOx) for drop-coating on a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) for glucose sensing application. Electrochemical properties of the BPEI-Fc/GOx/SPCE prepared under different conditions were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV). On the basis of these CV results, the synthetic condition of the BPEI-Fc/GOx/SPCE could be optimized. By incorporating conductive poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), the performance of a redox polymer nanobead­based enzyme electrode could be further improved. The influence of PEDOT:PSS on the nanocomposite enzyme electrode was discussed from the aspects of the apparent electron diffusion coefficient (D(app)) and the charge transfer resistance (R(ct)). The glucose-sensing sensitivity of the BPEI-Fc/PEDOT:PSS/GOx/SPCE is calculated to be 66 µA mM(­1) cm(­2), which is 2.5 times higher than that without PEDOT:PSS. The apparent Michaelis constant (K(M)(app)) of the BPEI-Fc/PEDOT:PSS/GOx/SPCE estimated by the Lineweaver­Burk plot is 2.4 mM, which is much lower than that of BPEI-Fc/GOx/SPCE (11.2 mM). This implies that the BPEI-Fc/PEDOT:PSS/GOx/SPCE can catalytically oxidize glucose in a more efficient way. The interference test was carried out by injection of glucose and three common interferences: ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), and uric acid (UA) at physiological levels. The interferences of DA (4.2%) and AA (7.8%) are acceptable and the current response to UA (1.6%) is negligible, compared to the current response to glucose.

Modification of glassy carbon electrode with a polymer/mediator composite and its application for the electrochemical detection of iodate.

A modified glassy carbon electrode was prepared by depositing a composite of polymer and mediator on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The mediator, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and the polymer, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) were electrochemically deposited as a composite on the GCE by applying cyclic voltammetry (CV). This modified electrode is hereafter designated as GCE/PEDOT/FAD. FAD was found to significantly enhance the growth of PEDOT. Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) analysis was performed to study the mass changes in the electrode during the electrodeposition of PEDOT, with and without the addition of FAD. The optimal cycle number for preparing the modified electrode was determined to be 9, and the corresponding surface coverage of FAD (Γ(FAD)) was ca. 5.11×10(-10)mol cm(-2). The amperometric detection of iodate was performed in a 100 mM buffer solution (pH 1.5). The GCE/PEDOT/FAD showed a sensitivity of 0.78 µA µM(-1) cm(-2), a linear range of 4-140 µM, and a limit of detection of 0.16 µM for iodate. The interference effects of 250-fold Na(+), Mg(2+), Ca(2+), Zn(2+), Fe(2+), Cl(-), NO(3)(-), I(-), SO(4)(2-) and SO(3)(2-), with reference to the concentration of iodate were negligible. The long-term stability of GCE/PEDOT/FAD was also investigated. The GCE/PEDOT/FAD electrode retained 82% of its initial amperometric response to iodate after 7 days. The GCE/PEDOT/FAD was also applied to determine iodate in a commercial salt.

A glucose bio-battery prototype based on a GDH/poly(methylene blue) bioanode and a graphite cathode with an iodide/tri-iodide redox couple.

A glucose bio-battery prototype independent of oxygen is proposed based on a glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) bioanode and a graphite cathode with an iodide/tri-iodide redox couple. At the bioanode, a NADH electrocatalyst, poly(methylene blue) (PMB), which can be easily grown on the electrode (screen-printed carbon paste electrode, SPCE) by electrodeposition, is harnessed and engineered. We find that carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are capable of significantly increasing the deposition amount of PMB and thus enhancing the PMB's electrocatalysis of NADH oxidation and the glucose bio-battery's performance. The choice of the iodide/tri-iodide redox couple eliminates the dependence of oxygen for this bio-battery, thus enabling the bio-battery with a constant current-output feature similar to that of the solar cells. The present glucose bio-battery prototype can attain a maximum power density of 2.4 µW/cm(2) at 25 °C.

Encapsulating benzoquinone and glucose oxidase with a PEDOT film: application to oxygen-independent glucose sensors and glucose/O2 biofuel cells.

A modified electrode was proposed based on the sequential coating to immobilize both p-benzoquinone (BZQ) and glucose oxidase (GOD). Three electrodes, A, B, and C, were prepared separately by drop-coating the BZQ solution dissolved in different solvents on the stainless-steel/carbon (ssteel/C). Among those three electrodes, electrode B shows the best sensitivity of 2.21mAM(-1)cm(-2), a linear concentration range of 1.1-15 mM and a response time of 100 s at a sensing potential of 0.3V. The responses of interferences, including ascorbic acid, dopamine, uric acid and acetaminophen, were approximately 0%, 1.4%, approximately 0% and 3%, respectively, taken the sensing current at 6.0mM glucose as 100%. In a test of the human blood sample, an error of +3.6% was noticed for electrode B. Besides, for the biofuel cell application, maximum power densities reached 18.9 and 22.5 microW/cm(2) at 25 and 37 degrees C, respectively, with an all-solution-type biocathode.