[Spatial Characteristics and Ecological Risks of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Coastal Urbanized Areas of China and South Korea].

This study concentrated on the 15 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the coastal areas of China and South Korea, an urbanized area with intensive human activities. In total, 126 water samples and 125 sediment samples were collected and determined by HPLC-MS/MS. Fifteen PFASs were detected at least once in all the sites. The total concentrations of PFASs in water and sediment samples ranged from 6.75 ng·L-1 to 20982 ng·L-1 and from 0.229 ng·g-1 to 53.8 ng·g-1 (dw), respectively. The concentrations of PFASs in waters and sediments were relatively high in China, and PFOA was the predominant PFAS. In contrast, short chain compounds such as PFBA and PFPeA played a major role in water, and PFOS, PFBA, and PFOA dominated the sediment samples in South Korea. The partition coefficients of PFASs were closely related to the fraction of organic carbon in the sediment and the carbon chain length of PFASs. Among the 15 compounds, the partition coefficients of 9 were significantly correlated with the fraction of organic carbon (r>0.21, P<0.05), and the partition coefficient steadily increased with the increase of the carbon chain length. The results of ecological risk assessment suggested that the coastal urbanized areas of China and South Korea are still at a low risk. However, some specific areas also showed PFAS pollution. More attention should be paid to the potential health risks.

[Spatio-temporal Variations in the Characteristics of Water Eutrophication and Sediment Pollution in Baiyangdian Lake].

Since the establishment of Xiong'an New District, a series of comprehensive pollution control measures have been implemented in Baiyangdian Lake. To evaluate the pollution status and identify the main sources of pollution of Baiyangdian Lake, 30 water samples and 29 sediment samples were collected in the lake. Five water quality indexes (i.e., concentrations of chemical oxygen demand, total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), NH4+-N, and chlorophyll-a) and three sediment quality indexes (i.e., concentrations of TN, TP, and heavy metals) were measured. Along with historical monitoring data, the spatio-temporal pollution characteristics and their influencing factors in Baiyangdian Lake were analyzed. The results show that the Baiyangdian Lake water is eutrophicated. Of the 30 sampling sites, 8 are "mildly eutrophicated" (accounting for 26.7%), 16 are "moderately eutrophicated" (accounting for 53.3%), and 6 are "severely eutrophicated" (accounting for 20%). Compared with the periods between 1991 and 2017, the water quality of most sampling sites, especially in the northern parts, has improved a lot. This shows that the pollution control measures have basically curbed the gradually increasing trend of pollution in the waterbody. The nutritive pollution in sediment is severe. The concentrations of TN are between 1483.7 and 14234.1 mg·kg-1, with a mean value of 5054.9 mg·kg-1, and the concentration coefficient variation in different sites is as high as 46.5%. The concentrations of TP are between 360.3 and 1964.4 mg·kg-1, with a mean value of 925.4 mg·kg-1, and the concentration coefficient variation in different sites is 25.7%. Geoaccumulation index calculation shows that the mean Igeo value of heavy metals in sediments is less than 1, which indicates cleanness or slight pollution. The main contributions to heavy metal pollution are Cd, Zn, and Cu. Regarding ecological risk of heavy metals, only some sites (i.e., L3, L21, L28, and L29) are at high and very high risk level, while the remaining sites are at moderate risk level. Overall, the pollution of Baiyangdian Lake changes from the northern part to the southern part, and the main influencing factors also change from external pollution to endogenous pollution caused by the discharge of villages in the lake and the sediments.

[Spatial Distribution and Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soils from a Typical Urbanized Area].

With the rapid urbanization in China, soil environments are facing high risks. Taking a typical urbanized area as a case study, a total of 106 surface soil samples (0-20 cm) and 96 subsurface soil samples (20-40 cm) were collected to determine the concentrations of heavy metals, and then, the Nemerow index and Hankson index methods were used to evaluate their degrees of ecological risk. The spatial distributions of ecological risks were also explored. Experimental results showed that the concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb, and Hg in surface soil samples were 2.87-84.64, 1.40-56.00, 2.75-125.05, 15.05-201.39, 1.46-89.92, 0.001-0.92, 15.29-160.07, and 0.006-0.52 mg·kg-1, respectively, and those in subsurface soil samples were 3.56-75.14, 1.65-71.58, 3.28-290.04, 17.99-296.94, 3.07-65.67, 0.02-1.00, 11.10-97.59, and 0.01-0.41 mg·kg-1, respectively. According to the risk control standards for soil contamination of agricultural land, approximately 71.70%, 40.57%, 4.72%, 3.77%, and 0.94% of Cd, Cu, Pb, As, and Zn, respectively, in the surface soil samples exceeded the standards, while 72.92%, 39.58%, 6.25%, 3.13%, 3.13%, and 1.04% of Cd, Cu, As, Zn, Pb, and Ni, respectively, in the subsurface soil samples exceeded the standards. Obviously, the pollution by Cd and Cu was the most severe in the research area, and the main contaminated areas were distributed in the northern part of the land. The soil environmental quality pollution assessment illustrated that high risk areas were distributed in the northern part of the research area too. The risk assessment results indicated that the main pollution factor was Cd, which is accordance with the serious pollution findings for Cd. In response to these results, effective management and remediation methods should be taken to control the soil environment pollution in this typical urbanized area.

[Spatial Distribution and Potential Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments in Shunde Waterway, Southern China].

Environmental quality of soils and sediments around water source area can influence the safety of potable water of rivers. In order to study the pollution characteristics, the sources and ecological risks of heavy metals Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cd in water source area, surface soils around the waterway and sediments in the estuary of main tributaries were collected in Shunde, and ecological risks of heavy metals were assessed by two methods of potential ecological risk assessment. The mean contents of Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cd in the surface soils were 186.80, 65.88, 54.56, 32.47, 22.65 and 0.86 mg · kg⁻¹ respectively, and they were higher than their soil background values except those of Cu and Ni. The mean concentrations of Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cd in the sediments were 312.11, 111.41, 97.87, 92.32, 29.89 and 1.72 mg · kg⁻¹ respectively, and they were higher than their soil background values except that of Ni. The results of principal component analysis illustrated that the main source of Cr and Ni in soils was soil parent materials, and Zn, Pb, Cu and Cd in soils mainly came from wastewater discharge of local manufacturing industry. The six heavy metals in sediments mainly originated from industry emissions around the Shunde waterway. The results of potential ecological risk assessment integrating environmental bioavailability of heavy metals showed that Zn, Cu, Pb and Ni had a slight potential ecological risk. Cd had a slight potential ecological risk in surface soils, but a moderate potential ecological risk in surfaces sediments. Because the potential ecological risk assessment integrating environmental bioavailability of heavy metals took the soil properties and heavy metal forms into account, its results of risks were lower than those of Hakanson methods, and it could avoid overestimating the potential risks of heavy metals.

[Classification of Priority Area for Soil Environmental Protection Around Water Sources: Method Proposed and Case Demonstration].

Based on comprehensive consideration of soil environmental quality, pollution status of river, environmental vulnerability and the stress of pollution sources, a technical method was established for classification of priority area of soil environmental protection around the river-style water sources. Shunde channel as an important drinking water sources of Foshan City, Guangdong province, was studied as a case, of which the classification evaluation system was set up. In detail, several evaluation factors were selected according to the local conditions of nature, society and economy, including the pollution degree of heavy metals in soil and sediment, soil characteristics, groundwater sensitivity, vegetation coverage, the type and location of pollution sources. Data information was mainly obtained by means of field survey, sampling analysis, and remote sensing interpretation. Afterwards, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was adopted to decide the weight of each factor. The basic spatial data layers were set up respectively and overlaid based on the weighted summation assessment model in Geographical Information System (GIS), resulting in a classification map of soil environmental protection level in priority area of Shunde channel. Accordingly, the area was classified to three levels named as polluted zone, risky zone and safe zone, which respectively accounted for 6.37%, 60.90% and 32.73% of the whole study area. Polluted zone and risky zone were mainly distributed in Lecong, Longjiang and Leliu towns, with pollutants mainly resulted from the long-term development of aquaculture and the industries containing furniture, plastic constructional materials and textile and clothing. In accordance with the main pollution sources of soil, targeted and differentiated strategies were put forward. The newly established evaluation method could be referenced for the protection and sustainable utilization of soil environment around the water sources.

[Risk Assessment and Risk Management of Chemicals in China].

Risk assessment and risk management have been increasingly approved as an effective approach for appropriate disposal and scientific management of chemicals. This study systematically analyzed the risk assessment methods of chemicals from three aspects including health risk, ecological risk and regional risk. Based on the current situation of classification and management towards chemicals in China, a specific framework of risk management on chemicals was proposed by selecting target chemicals, predominant industries and related stakeholders as the objects. The results of the present study will provide scientific support for improving risk assessment and reasonable management of chemicals in China.

[Effects of Eliminating Backward Production Capacities on Reduction of Dioxin Emissions in Key Industries].

Phase-out of backward production facilities can significantly reduce the emissions of unintentional persistent organic pollutants from the industrial thermal process. An estimation of reduced dioxin emissions due to closure of backward production capacities is valuable to objectively evaluate China's efforts in and contribution to performing the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Our group previously evaluated environmental effects of the phase-out of backward production facilities on dioxin emissions from 2006 to 2009. Based on the above study, due to the phase-out of backward production capacities from 2010 to 2013, the reductions in dioxin emissions to air from power generation sector, coke sector, and iron & steel (including ferroalloy) sector were estimated to be 86.13, 133.94 and 78.78 g · a⁻¹, respectively. Because the emission factors used in this paper are a little bit conservative, the actual reduced emissions may be greater than the estimated values. Besides the industrial sectors mentioned above, reduced dioxin emissions can also be estimated in more industrial sectors such as cement, calcium carbide, metal smelting and papermaking sectors. The paper also provided methods for the future comprehensive evaluation of dioxin reduction.

[Estimation of Co-benefits from Pollution Emission Reduction by Eliminating Backward Production Capacities in Hainan Province].

Industrial structural adjustment plays a significant role in achieving the pollution reduction goals in China. It is an optimal choice for Hainan Province to promote industrial structure upgrading and build a "national demonstration area for ecological civilization construction". The emission factor method was used to estimate co-benefits of pollution emission reduction through closure of backward production capacities as a result of industrial structural adjustment policies. The results showed that in Hainan Province the cumulative reduction emissions of NOx, dioxins and mercury were 2826.0 t·a-1, 10462.5 mg·a-1 and 280.8 kg·a-1 respectively from 2006 to 2013, taking into consideration of cement, iron & steel, paper making and solid clay bricks sectors. The impact of eliminating backward production capacities on reductions of NOx was not remarkable, but the impacts on control over dioxins and mercury emissions were significant. The paper provided a new approach for estimating co-benefits from reducing the conventional pollutants and emerging pollutants.

[Effects of Perfluoroalkyl Substances on the Microbial Community Structure in Surface Sediments of Typical River, China].

In order to reveal the relationship between Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) contamination and the bacterial community composition, surface sediment samples were collected along the Xiaoqing River in Shandong Province in April and July 2014 (XQ1-XQ10), where many PFASs manufacturers were located. PFASs were quantified by HPLC/MS-MS, related environmental factors affecting the microbial community structure were measured, and the microbial community structure in surface sediments was measured by the second-generation sequencing technology Illumina MiSeq. The results not only revealed the degree of PFASs pollution in the sediments of Xiaoqing River, but also illustrated the relationship between PFASs pollution and the microbial community structure. Among the twelve kinds of PFASs detected in this study, PFOA was the predominant compound, and the highest PFOA concentrations were detected in the sample of XQ5 (April: 456. 2 ng. g-1; July: 748.7 ng . g-1) located at the downstream of Xiaoqing River with many fluoropolymer producing facilities. PFOA contamination was the main factor affecting the microbial community structure in April, accordingly community richness and evenness were significantly negatively correlated with PFOA levels. The abundance of Thiobacillus increased with the increasing PFOA concentration in the sediment PFOA. This suggested that Thiobacillus was sensitive to PFOA pollution and might be the potential indicator to reveal the degree of PFOA pollution in sediment. When the concentrations of PFOA were below 100 ng . g-1, no significant effects on the microbial community structure were observed.

[Assessment of Emission and Co-Reduction of PCDD/Fs and PCNs in the Secondary Copper Production Sector].

Polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) could he generated and discharged unintentionally in the secondary copper production industry with similar mechanisms as PCDD/Fs during high-temperature industrial processes. Therefore, measures that reduce the release of PCDD/Fs will also reduce PCNs emissions. Analysis of the technical process and correlation with their emissions will provide theoretical basis for co-mitigation of PCNs and PCDD/Fs. The production process of secondary copper was analyzed, with key production stages of discharge identified through monitoring the emissions of two kinds of pollutants. Co-reduction technologies were screened and specified. Three recommendations on co-mitigation of the two pollutants were provided to support the implementation of Stockholm Convention and UPOPs reduction in the secondary copper production sector in China. Key words:secondary copper industry; smelting; PCNs; PCDD/Fs; co-mitigation

[Risk assessment and countermeasures of BTEX contamination in soils of typical pesticide factory].

Soil samples around three representative pesticide factories were collected in Zhangjiakou City, Hebei Province, and analyzed to identify their pollution characteristics and health risk of BTEX by purge-and trap and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy method. Total concentrations of BTEX in soils in Plant A, B and C ranged from 673.50 to 32 363.50 ng x g(-1), nd to 6 461.80 ng x g(-1) and 461.70 to 8 740.80 ng x g(-1), respectively. Concentrations of detected toluene (4 619.50-7 234.30 ng x g(-1)) and ethylbenzene (364.60-7 944.60 ng x g(-1)) had exceeded the Canadian guidelines for industrial land (370 ng x g(-1) and 82 ng x g(-1)), and concentration of xylene (19 799.40 ng x g(-1)) in dust in production area of Plant A was larger than the Dutch soil intervention value (17 000 ng x g(-1)). While concentrationsn of BTEX around Plant A (Region I ) and Plant B and C (Region II) ranged from nd to 645.81 ng x g(-1), and nd to 309.13 ng x g(-1), respectively, which were below the Canadian guidelines for agricultural land. The non-carcinogenic risk of BTEX in Plant A (2.90E-06 -1.32E-04), B (nd -4.30E-05) and C (1.29E-06 -5.64E-05) were all below 1, which suggested that no obvious health risk existed in each plant. The non-carcinogenic risks in Region I (nd -2.02E-06) and Region II (nd -1.10E-06) were below than 1, and also lower than those in factories. High risk areas were mainly concentrated in the downwind, moreover, soils around villages and towns were also with higher risk. In conclusion, soils and dusts in each factory had been polluted and the quality of agricultural land had been partly deteriorated. Finally, environmental management and occupational protection countermeasures were proposed based on the research results.

[Risk assessment and countermeasures of heavy metals pollution in Wanquan segment of Yanghe River].

In order to investigate heavy metals contamination status in Wanquan segment of Yanghe River, Zhangjiakou, 9 water and sediments samples were collected respectively for analyzing Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb, Hg and As, with water quality indicators determined at the same time. The potential ecological risk index (PERI) was then employed to evaluate potential ecological risk of heavy metals in sediments. Results indicated that the concentrations of Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb, Hg and As in water samples ranged from 1.28-24.13, 1.13-16.84, 0.08-0.11, 1.80-10.65, 1.40-19.12, 0.13-2.05, 0.06-0.99, 0.46-4.22 microg x L(-1), respectively, which are all below the national water quality standard for the demands of industrial use and agricultural irrigation. Principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to reveal the relationship between water quality indicators and heavy metals pollution in water samples. Concentrations of Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb, Hg and As in sediments ranged from 5.90-110.11, 17.34-56.04, 0.07-0.31, 38.71-116.74, 40.39-85.77, 18.65-22.74, nd-0.047, 0.85-9.98 mg x kg(-1), respectively. The descending order of potential ecological risk intensity caused by different heavy metals was: Cd > Cu > Hg > Ni > As > Pb > Cr > Zn, and the average value of each heavy metal was low, while middle-grade risk level of Cd and Hg were also found in several sites. Among all monitoring sites, the descending order of PERI of all target heavy metals was: YH-07 > YH-03 > YH-09 > YH-02 > YH-06 > YH-04 > YH-05 > YH-01, and the average value reached slight grade, while middle-grade risk level was detected in YH-07. Sampling locations in YH-02-YH-03 and YH-07-YH-09 were found with relatively high ecological risk level because of agricultural and anthropogenic activities, respectively. Finally, three risk management regions were figured out and corresponding countermeasures for improving the environmental quality of the watershed were proposed based on the research results.

[Construction of index system for early warning of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) pollution incidents in China].

Early warning of pollution incidents caused by persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is urgently needed for China in the circumstances of serious POPs pollution and in increasing demand for improvement in chemical risk management. Given different categories of POPs and pollution incidents, the index system for early warning of POPs pollution accidents was built based on lifecycle theory and POPs formation mechanisms. It will be helpful for decision makers to enhance the early warning management of POPs pollution incidents in China. The index system for early warning includes two parts, early warning and mechanism for system operation. The indices include risk source indicators, warning indicators and warning level indicators. To ensure the effective implementation of this system, the mechanisms for response and policy guarantee were also formulated. These mechanisms contain dynamic inventory management and periodical assessment of risk sources, timely and effective report of warning conditions, as well as coordination and cooperation among the relevant departments.

[Analysis of control policy for persistent toxic substances from electronic wastes in China].

The environmental pollution and risk of persistent toxic substances (PTS) have caused extensive attention nationally and internationally in recent years. Electronic waste (e-waste) is an important emission source of PTS. Based on life-cycle management, e-waste management was divided into four major areas according to emission paths of e-waste PTS, namely source reduction, process control, end-of-pipe treatment and emergency response. Related regulations and policies of China's e-waste PTS control were analyzed. An evaluation system of regulations and policies was set up, which involves management objective, regulation availability, specific provisions, regulations coordination and policy implementation. The regulations and policies of each life-cycle phase were evaluated according to expert consultancy. The regulations and policies of source reduction are more perfect for their clear management objectives and the better regulation availability, while the response is the most imperfect, for lacking of clear management objectives and detailed rules, and poor coordination and implementation of the regulation. Recommendations for regulation and policy improvement were proposed based on the assessment results.

[Spatial distribution and composition of perfluorinated compounds in soils around the Huaihe River].

In order to analyze the occurrence and composition of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), 18 topsoil samples were collected around the Huaihe River in October, 2008. Total fluoride (TF) and extractable organic fluorine (EOF) were determined using combustion ion chromatography (CIC), and PFCs were quantified by HPLC/MS-MS. Among the sixteen PFCs analyzed, eleven PFCs were detected. Concentrations of PFCs ranged from n. d. to 1.22 ng x g(-1), and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were the predominant PFCs. Concentrations of PFCs showed no significant difference, but compositions varied from soil to soil. PFCs mainly came from emissions of local small chemical plants and atmospheric dry and wet deposition. The results from mass balance analysis indicated that PFCs only accounted for 0.3% of EOF and EOF comprised 0.02% of TF. There was still a large amount of organic fluorine besides PFCs, and inorganic fluorine and non-extractable organic fluorine comprised the major portion of TF. Furthermore, the current analysis method could not detect all kinds of PFCs and related unknown organic fluorine.

[Risk assessment and countermeasure of BTEX in pesticide factory].

BTEX are important environmental pollutants, harmful to human through respiratory inhalation, digestive tract and skin contact, and also have teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. BTEX were detected in multi-media to identify their distributions and assess their human health risk in a pesticide factory in Hebei province. Purge and trap GC-MS, adsorption/thermal desorption GC chromatography and the health risk assessment model were applied, and corresponding management measures were proposed. The results showed that BTEX existed in soil, dust, air, groundwater and wastewater. The concentration of BTEX in dust of the production area was 7.33 mg x kg(-1), in particular the concentration of toluene was 5.64 mg x kg(-1), exceeding the Canadian industrial land standard. Building three scenarios for working more than 10 years, 20 years and 30 years, the total non-carcinogens index was 4.19 x10(-3), 8.25 x 10(-3) and 1.22 x 10(-2), respectively, all lower than 1; the carcinogens index of benzene was 1.70 x 10(-7), 3.34 x 10(-7) and 4.92 x 10(-7), respectively, all lower than 10(-6). It indicated that there was no significant non-carcinogens and carcinogens hazard to workers inside the factory, but they might be exposed to more health risks if their work experience increase. Finally, recommendations for improving the environmental quality and personnel security in the factory were proposed based on the research results.

[Temporal variation of water quality and driving factors in Yanghe watershed of Zhangjiakou].

Yanghe is an important water source for Guanting Reservoir, which once supplied the Beijing city with drinking water, industrial process water and water-use in landscape. Based on the data of water quality monitored by Yanghe watershed monitoring stations from 1992 to 2009, 11 pollutants were selected for analysis. The trends of changes in water quality were figured out, and the major pollutants and driving factors were measured by the integrated standard index and grey correlation analytical methods. The results showed that there were two stages of water quality change in Yanghe watershed of Zhangjiakou. Firstly, the water was polluted seriously but recovered rapidly from 1992 to 1996. Secondly, although light pollution occurred in the watershed from 1997 to 2009, the pollution factors were still above the limits. The main pollution factors are ammonia nitrogen, petroleum, permanganate index, BOD5, Cr6+ and Cd. The main driving factor of water quality is the change of land use type, and the agricultural land showed less impact on water quality than the industrial land.

[Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of atmospheric volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in pesticide factory].

A method for determining volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air by summa canister collecting and gas chromatography/ mass spectroscopy detecting was adopted. Pollution condition and characteristics of VOCs were discussed in three representative pesticide factories in Zhangjiakou City, Hebei Province. Meanwhile, an internationally recognized four-step evaluation model of health risk assessment was applied to preliminarily assess the health risk caused by atmospheric VOCs in different exposure ways, inhalation and dermal exposure. Results showed that serious total VOCs pollution existed in all factories. Concentrations of n-hexane (6161.90-6910.00 microg x m(-3)), benzene (126.00-179.30 microg x m(-3)) and 1,3-butadiene (115.00-177.30 microg x m(-3)) exceeded the Chronic Inhalation Reference Concentrations recommended by USEPA, corresponding to 700, 30 and 2 microg x m(-3), respectively. Concentration of dichloromethane (724.00 microg x m(-3)) in factory B was also higher than the reference concentration (600 microg x m(-3)). Results of health risk assessment indicated that non-carcinogenic risk indexes of VOCs ranged from 1.00E-04 to 1.00E + 00 by inhalation exposure, and 1.00E-09 to 1.00E-05 by dermal exposure. Risk indexes of n-hexane and dichloromethane by inhalation exposure in all factories exceeded 1, and risk index of benzene by inhalation in factory B was also higher than 1. Carcinogenic risk indexes exposed to VOCs ranged from 1.00E-08 to 1.00E-03 by inhalation exposure and 1. oo00E -13 to 1.00E-08 by dermal exposure. Cancer risk of 1,3-butadiene by inhalation exceeded 1.0E-04, which lead to definite risk, and those of benzene by inhalation also exceeded the maximum allowable level recommended by International Commission on Radiological Protection (5.0E-05). The risks of dermal exposure presented the same trend as inhalation exposure, but the level was much lower than that of inhalation exposure. Thus, inhalation exposure of atmospheric VOCs was the dominant way of health risk in these factories.

[Characteristics and countermeasures of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emission in China].

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a kind of irritating, carcinogenic, deforming, mutagenic, flammable and explosive organic compounds which are harmful to human and ecosystem health. In terms of industrial stationary sources, vehicle exhaust sources and domestic emission sources, this paper analyzed the major characteristics of VOCs emissions. The spatial distribution of industrial VOCs emission in China's typical areas were figured out based on the statistic data issued in 2010. The results showed that the emission quantity in eastern areas was higher than that in middle and western areas, not only by total amount but also by unit area, while there was a significant difference among these areas in terms of industrial emission sources. Therefore, the current VOCs governance, including regulations, standards, and existing problems were discussed, and then based on the experiences from the developed countries and regions, the suggestions were proposed to enhance the VOCs management in China.

[Mechanism for transformation of environmental criteria into environmental standards in China].

In order to provide scientific basis for developing more reasonable and effective environmental standards (ESs), China has taken its own environmental criteria (EC) research strategy in recent years. For the purpose of developing a transformation mechanism from EC to ESs suitable for China, current EC and ESs in China were compared with those in some developed countries, such as the USA, Canada and Australia. Four common characteristics of transformation from EC to ESs in developed countries and corresponding problems in China were drawn through the comparison, based on which a framework for transformation from EC to ESs was established. The framework was composed by three parts: (1) relevant national and local agencies and responsibilities; (2) steps for transformation including affecting factors and their interactions; (3) and policies for solving current problems in China.