Validity and reproducibility of the CALERA Research Sensor to estimate core temperature at different intensities of a cycling exercise in the heat.

Recent heatwaves have highlighted the importance of accurate and continuous core temperature (TCORE) monitoring in sports settings. For example, accentuated rises in TCORE caused by physical exercises under environmental heat stress increase the risk of heat illnesses. Thus, using valid and reproducible devices is essential to ensure safe sports practice. In this study, we assessed the validity and reproducibility of the Calera Research Sensor (CRS) in estimating the TCORE of male and female participants during cycling exercise in a hot environment. Seven male (age: 36.2 ± 10.1 years) and eight female cyclists (age: 30.1 ± 5.0 years) underwent two identical cycling trials in a dry-bulb temperature of 32 °C and relative humidity of 60%. The protocol consisted of an initial 10-min rest followed by a 60-min exercise comprising 10 min at 20%, 25 min at 55%, and 25 min at 75% of maximal aerobic power, and an additional 25 min of post-exercise recovery. TCORE was recorded simultaneously every minute using a gastrointestinal capsule (TGi) and the CRS (TSENSOR). Bland-Altman analysis was performed to calculate bias, upper (LCS) and lower (LCI) concordance limits, and the 95% confidence interval (95%CI). The maximum acceptable difference between the two devices was predetermined at ±0.4 °C. A mixed linear model was used to assess the paired differences between the two measurement systems, considering the participants, trials, and environmental conditions as random effects and the cycling stages as fixed effects. An intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.98 was recorded when analyzing data from the entire experiment. A non-significant bias value of 0.01 °C, LCS of 0.38 °C, LCI of -0.35 °C, and CI95% of ±0.36 °C were found. When analyzing data according to the participants' sex, CRS reproducibility was high in both sexes: ICC values of 0.98 and 0.99 were reported for males and females, respectively. CI95% was 0.35 °C in experiments with males and 0.37 °C with females, thereby falling within the acceptable margin of difference. Therefore, CRS was considered valid (compared to TGi) and reproducible in estimating TCORE in both sexes at various intensities of cycling exercise in the heat.

Effects of two external cooling strategies on physiological and perceptual responses of athletes with tetraplegia during and after exercise in the heat.

Athletes with tetraplegia may experience marked hyperthermia while exercising under environmental heat stress due to their limited ability to dissipate heat through evaporative means. This study investigated the effectiveness of two external cooling strategies (i.e., spraying water onto the body surface or using a cooling vest) on physiological and perceptual variables in tetraplegic athletes during and after an aerobic exercise session in a hot environment. Nine male wheelchair rugby players performed an incremental test to determine their maximum aerobic power output. After that, they were subjected to three experimental trials in a counter-balanced order: control (CON, no body cooling), cooling vest (CV), and water spraying (WS). During these trials, they performed 30 min of a submaximal exercise (at 65% of their maximum aerobic power) inside an environmental chamber set to maintain the dry-bulb temperature at 32 °C. The following variables were recorded at regular intervals during the exercise and for an additional 30 min following the exertion (i.e., post-exercise recovery) with the participants also exposed to 32 °C: body core temperature (TCORE), skin temperature (TSKIN), heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), thermal comfort (TC), and thermal sensation (TS). While exercising in CON conditions, the tetraplegic athletes had the expected increases in TCORE, TSKIN, HR, RPE, and TC and TS scores. HR, TC, and TS decreased gradually toward pre-exercise values after the exercise, whereas TCORE and TSKIN remained stable at higher values. Using a cooling vest decreased the temperature measured only on the chest and reduced the scores of RPE, TC, and TS during and after exercise but did not influence the other physiological responses of the tetraplegic athletes. In contrast, spraying water onto the athletes' body surface attenuated the exercise-induced increase in TSKIN, led to lower HR values during recovery, and was also associated with better perception during and after exercise. We conclude that water spraying is more effective than the cooling vest in attenuating physiological strain induced by exercise-heat stress. However, although both external cooling strategies do not influence exercise hyperthermia, they improve the athletes' thermal perception and reduce perceived exertion.

Acute alcohol ingestion decreases the work done above the end-test power during a 3-min all-out cycling exercise.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol ingestion influences metabolism during a subsequent exercise session, as evidenced by increased blood lactate concentration during fixed-intensity exercise. Therefore, augmented blood concentrations of alcohol may interfere with the anaerobic metabolism during high-intensity, short-duration exercise bout, thereby leading to impaired athletic performance. OBJECTIVE: This study investigated whether the acute ingestion of alcohol as ethanol modulates performance parameters derived from the power-duration relationship in a 3-min all-out cycling test that allows for identifying the power output related to heavy and severe exercise intensities. METHODS: Twenty-four recreationally active cyclists (16 men and 8 women) ingested a beverage containing either 0.4 g ethanol.kg-1 body mass (EtOH) or a placebo (PLA) solution. Thirty minutes following ingestion, they completed a 3-min all-out test to measure power output and determine the end-test power (EP) and the work done above EP (WEP). RESULTS: Alcohol ingestion decreased WEP by 16% (EtOH: 5.6 ± 2.5 kJ vs. PLA: 6.7 ± 2.4 kJ; P = .003) but did not change EP (EtOH: 211 ± 44 W vs. PLA: 212 ± 44 W; P = .671). The alcohol-mediated effect in WEP was not influenced when controlling for participants' sex or accuracy in identifying the beverage ingested. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that alcohol ingestion impaired the anaerobic work capacity, as evidenced by the reduction in WEP during the 3-min all-out test. Moreover, the ability to exercise at an intensity above the heavy domain may be decreased after ingestion of a moderate alcohol dose.

Cardiac autonomic nervous activity during different sleep stages in individuals with spinal cord injury: The influence of physical training.

OBJECTIVE: The present study assessed the influence of physical training on cardiac autonomic activity in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) during different sleep stages. METHODS: Twenty-six volunteers were allocated into three groups: 9 sedentary individuals without SCI (control, CON); 8 sedentary tetraplegic individuals with chronic SCI (SED-SCI); 9 physically trained tetraplegic individuals with chronic SCI (TR-SCI). All participants underwent nocturnal polysomnography to monitor sleep stages: wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep (N1, N2, and N3 stages), and REM sleep. The electrocardiography data obtained during this exam were extracted to analyze the heart rate variability (HRV). RESULTS: Sleep stages influenced HRV in the time [RR interval and root mean square of successive RR interval differences (RMSSD)] and frequency [low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency (HF) powers and LF-to-HF ratio] domains (P < 0.05). SED-SCI individuals showed unchanged HRV compared to CON (P > 0.05). When comparing the TR-SCI and SED-SCI groups, no significant differences in HRV were reported in the time domain (P > 0.05). However, in the frequency domain, more accentuated HF power was observed in TR-SCI than in SED-SCI individuals during the N2 and N3 stages and REM sleep (P < 0.05). Moreover, TR-SCI had higher HF power than CON during the N3 stage (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: TR-SCI individuals have greater HF power, indicative of parasympathetic modulation, than sedentary (injured or not injured) individuals during different sleep stages. Therefore, enhanced parasympathetic activity induced by physical training may improve cardiac autonomic modulation during sleep in individuals with chronic SCI.

Long-term heat acclimation training in mice: Similar metabolic and running performance adaptations despite a lower absolute intensity than training at temperate conditions.

This study investigated the impact of long-term heat acclimation (HA) training on mouse thermoregulation, metabolism, and running performance in temperate (T) and hot (H) environments. Male Swiss mice were divided into 1) Sedentary (SED) mice kept in T (22 °C; SED/T), 2) Endurance Trained mice (ET, 1 h/day, 5 days/week, 8 weeks, 60 % of maximum speed) in T (ET/T), 3) SED kept in H (32 °C; SED/H), and 4) ET in H (ET/H). All groups performed incremental load tests (ILT) in both environments before (pre-ET) and after four and eight weeks of ET. In the pre-ET period, H impaired (∼30 %) performance variables (maximum speed and external work) and increased (1.3 °C) maximum abdominal body temperature compared with T. In T, after four weeks, although ET/H exercised at a lower (∼30 %) absolute intensity than ET/T, performance variables and aerobic power (peak oxygen uptake, VO2peak) were similarly increased in both ET groups compared with SED/T. After eight weeks, the external work was higher in both ET groups compared with SED/T. Only ET/T significantly increased VO2peak (∼11 %) relative to its pre-ET period. In H, only after eight weeks, both ET groups improved (∼19 %) maximum speed and reduced (∼46 %) post-ILT blood lactate concentrations compared with their respective pre-ET values. Liver glycogen content increased (34 %) in both ET groups and SED/H compared with SED/T. Thus, ET/H was performed at a lower absolute intensity but promoted similar effects to ET/T on metabolism, aerobic power, and running performance. Our findings open perspectives for applying HA training as part of a training program or orthopedic and metabolic rehabilitation programs in injured or even obese animals, reducing mechanical load with equivalent or higher physiological demand.

Can the inner eye canthus temperature be used as an alternative method to measure core temperature in sleep-deprived individuals?

Core temperature is used in several situations, including studies on biological rhythms and circadian markers of physical performance. Measuring the inner eye canthus (Tco) temperature is a method proposed to identify core temperature, but it has shown little concordance in physical exercise situations and has not yet been used in studies with measurements taken throughout the day. The objective of this study was to compare the measurements and daily behavior of Tco obtained by infrared thermography with rectal temperature (Tre) during a prolonged waking protocol. Eleven male individuals participated in the study, who remained in the laboratory for at least 38 h using an actigraph to determine the wakefulness time and were monitored during the entire period. The Tre and Tco measurements were performed every 3 h. The ANOVA was used for repeated measurements followed by Bonferroni's post-hoc test to find the limits of concordance/proximity, while the Bland and Altman method and the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient were used to establish the reliability between the pairs. The significance level adopted was p < 0.05. The results demonstrate significant differences, low levels of concordance and unsatisfactory reliability levels between Tco and Tre at all 13 analyzed moments, in addition to not showing measurement reliability when all data are used together with the 143 temperature measurements. Daily behavior analysis shows moments with similar behavior with an increase in Tco and Tre, but at other times the behavior was the opposite, with a decrease in one measurement and an increase in the other. Based on the results presented, it is not recommended to use the inner eye canthus temperature as a substitute for rectal temperature for measuring core temperature at different times of the day or in sleep-deprived individuals.

Sleep impairment and altered pattern of circadian biomarkers during a long-term Antarctic summer camp.

Antarctic expeditions include isolation and exposure to cold and extreme photoperiods (with continuous natural light during summer) that may influence psychophysiological responses modulated by luminosity and sleep. We assessed changes in night sleep patterns by actigraphy, salivary biomarkers, and perceptual variables in seven participants in the following time points along a 50-day camping expedition in Antarctica (Nelson Island): Pre-Field (i.e., on the ship before camp), Field-1, Field-2, Field-3, Field-4 (from 1st to 10th, 11th to 20th, 21st to 35th and 36th to 50th days in camp, respectively), and Post-Field (on the ship after camp). We also characterized mood states, daytime sleepiness, and sleep quality by questionnaires. Staying in an Antarctic camp reduced sleep efficiency (5.2%) and increased the number of awakenings and wakefulness after sleep onset (51.8% and 67.1%, respectively). Furthermore, transient increases in time in bed (16.5%) and sleep onset latency (4.8 ± 4.0 min, from Pre- to Field-3) was observed. These changes were accompanied by an altered pattern of the emerging circadian marker ß-Arrestin-1 and a trend to reduce nocturnal melatonin [57.1%; P = 0.066, with large effect size (ES) from Pre-Field to Field-2 (ES = 1.2) and Field-3 (ES = 1.2)]. All changes returned to Pre-Field values during the Post-Field. The volunteers reported sleep-related physical complaints (feeling of cold and pain, discomfort to breathe, and cough or loud snoring), excessive daytime sleepiness, and reduced vigor during the camp. Thus, a 50-day camp alters neuroendocrine regulation and induces physical discomfort, which may explain the impaired sleep pattern and the consequent daytime sleepiness and mood changes.

Acute exercise modulates the inflammatory response in adipose tissue in both lean and obese mice.

OBJECTIVES: Acute physical exercise acts as a metabolic stressor, promoting activation of the immune system, and this response could be relevant in the adipose tissue remodeling process. In addition, some cytokines have important functions in lipolysis. Because chronic exercise improves obesity-related metabolic and inflammatory dysfunction, herein we investigated the effect of acute exercise on the inflammatory responses in the adipose tissues of lean and obese mice. METHODS: Lean mice were fed a standard chow diet, whereas obese mice were fed a high-refined carbohydrate diet for 8 wk. Both groups were subjected to 60 min of moderate-intensity exercise. RESULTS: In the epididymal adipose tissue of lean mice, exercise enhanced interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α levels, which correlated positively with increased serum free fatty acid concentrations. In vivo confocal imaging of epididymal adipose tissue vessels revealed higher recruitment of neutrophils after exercise. Also, the number of leukocytes expressing CD11b+F480- was elevated 6 h after exercise. Similarly, the chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 level increased at 6 h and remained high until 24 h after exercise. Myeloperoxidase activity was increased at 6, 12, and 24 h after exercise. Surprisingly, however, no changes were observed in epididymal adipose tissue from obese mice, considering proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α). On the other hand, IL-13, IL-4, and IL-10 levels were higher in obese mice after exercise. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that acute exercise promotes an inflammatory response in the adipose tissue of lean mice that is observed as part of its role in adipose tissue remodeling. In contrast, acute exercise promotes an antiinflammatory response in adipose tissue from obese mice, likely as an important tool for restoring homeostasis.

Fatigue and Recovery Time Course After Female Soccer Matches: A Systematic Review And Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to analyze the extent of fatigue responses after female soccer matches and the ensuing recovery time course of performance, physiological, and perceptual responses. METHODS: Three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus) were searched in October 2020 and updated in November 2021. Studies were included when participants were female soccer players, regardless of their ability level. Further, the intervention was an official soccer match with performance, physiological, or perceptual parameters collected pre- and post-match (immediately, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, or 72 h-post). RESULTS: A total of 26 studies (n = 465 players) were included for meta-analysis. Most performance parameters showed some immediate post-match reduction (effect size [ES] = - 0.72 to - 1.80), apart from countermovement jump (CMJ; ES = - 0.04). Reduced CMJ performance occurred at 12 h (ES = - 0.38) and 24 h (ES = - 0.42) and sprint at 48 h post-match (ES = - 0.75). Inflammatory and immunological parameters responded acutely with moderate-to-large increases (ES = 0.58-2.75) immediately post-match. Creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase alterations persisted at 72 h post-match (ES = 3.79 and 7.46, respectively). Small-to-moderate effects were observed for increased cortisol (ES = 0.75) and reduced testosterone/cortisol ratio (ES = -0.47) immediately post-match, while negligible to small effects existed for testosterone (ES = 0.14) and estradiol (ES = 0.34). Large effects were observed for perceptual variables, with increased fatigue (ES = 1.79) and reduced vigor (ES = - 0.97) at 12 h post-match, while muscle soreness was increased immediately post (ES = 1.63) and at 24 h post-match (ES = 1.00). CONCLUSIONS: Acute fatigue exists following female soccer matches, and the performance, physiological, and perceptual parameters showed distinctive recovery timelines. Importantly, physical performance was recovered at 72 h post-match, whereas muscle damage markers were still increased at this time point. These timelines should be considered when planning training and match schedules. However, some caution should be advised given the small number of studies available on this population. REGISTRATION: The protocol for this systematic review was pre-registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, Registration Number: CRD42021237857).

A Single Bout of Fatiguing Aerobic Exercise Induces Similar Pronounced Immunological Responses in Both Sexes.

Introduction: Physical exercise can acutely and chronically modulate immunological responses. Women and men have different innate and adaptive immune responses, and in this sense, these two groups may also have different acute immunological responses induced by exercise. In addition, it is essential to understand further whether the effects of physical exercise on the immune system responses depend on sex because limited scientific evidence on this topic is available. This information may allow athletes and coaches to improve the training process, mainly to understand if the physiological impact of given training stimuli in women is similar to that in men. Objective: The present study aimed to investigate the acute effects of continuous submaximal exercise until fatigue on physiological and immunological parameters in amateur female and male runners. Methods: This study included 18 female and 15 male volunteers. Each participant visited the laboratory on four consecutive days. The first visit consisted of medical history taking and explaining the study design. On the second visit, the participants were subjected to an incremental test to determine their maximal rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max) that was required to prescribe the intensity of the submaximal exercise protocol. On the third visit, the fatiguing exercise protocol was performed at 77%-80% of the VO2max. During this submaximal exercise, the heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate were recorded. Blood samples were collected before, immediately after, and 1 h after the fatiguing protocol to analyze the plasma levels of cytokines and creatine kinase (CK) and to count leukocytes. Finally, on the fourth visit, the participants underwent physical evaluations to measure their body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) imaging. Results: The average ages of the female and male groups were 34.2 ± 3.7 and 30.5 ± 4.3 years old, respectively. The female group ran 57 ± 27 min, while the male group ran 52 ± 15 min before fatiguing. In the female group, when comparing before and after the submaximal exercise, marked increases were observed in the following variables: heart rate (from 68.5 to 180.4 bpm), RPE (from 3.6 to 8.2), lactate (from 2.1 to 4.49 mmol/L), and CK (from 89.5 to 126.3 U/L). In addition, the female group showed an increased number of total leukocytes (from 7222.3 to 11162.9 × 106/µl), neutrophils (from 4,403 to 6,480 × 106/µl), and lymphocytes (from 2,342 ± to 3,562 × 106/µl) from pre- to post-submaximal exercise. In the male group, similar elevations in psychophysiological variables were observed, as evidenced by comparing the heart rate (from 52.8 to 184.1 bpm), RPE (from 0.0 to 8.9), lactate (from 2.7 to 7.2 mmol/L), and CK (from 106.2 to 165 U/L) before and after the submaximal exercise. The male group also showed an augmented number of total leukocytes (from 6,245 to 8,050 × 106/µl), neutrophils (from 3,335 to 4,128 × 106/), and lymphocytes (from 2,191 to 3,212 × 106/µl) when comparing pre- and post-submaximal exercise. There were no differences in the changes between women and men for these parameters. Conclusion: The aerobically fatiguing exercise protocol induced pronounced changes in the heart rate, plasma levels of lactate and CK, total leukocyte count, especially the number of neutrophils and lymphocytes, in both sexes. The fatiguing exercise protocol also changed the plasma levels of IL-6 and IL-10 in the female and male groups. Under the present conditions, the physiological changes induced by fatiguing submaximal exercise, including the immunological changes, were not influenced by sex. This study shows that the same aerobic physical exercise can alter immunological parameters in women and men, and this response is similar between sexes.

Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial revascularization: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to analyze the effects of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation (CR) on physical performance after myocardial revascularization. In addition, we compared the type and duration of exercise-based CR protocols to determine which ones produced the best performance improvements. METHODS: This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted and reported in accordance with PRISMA statement. A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and ProQuest, was performed in July 2020. Studies that met the following criteria were included: (i) participants submitted to myocardial revascularization (i.e., coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)), (ii) participants submitted to exercise-based CR, and (iii) participants submitted to protocols for assessing physical performance before and after the exercise-based CR. RESULTS: Thirteen and eleven studies evaluating the effects of exercise-based CR after myocardial revascularization were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, respectively. Exercise-based CR increased physical performance after myocardial revascularization (mean effect size (ES) 0.75; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.62, 0.88), particularly when aerobic (ES 0.85; 95% CI 0.68, 1.01) and combined training (ES 1.04; 95% CI 0.70, 1.38) lasting 8-12 weeks (ES 1.20; 95% CI 0.87, 1.53) was prescribed. CONCLUSIONS: The present systematic review and meta-analysis indicates that exercise-based CR increases physical performance after myocardial revascularization. The prescription of physical training for these patients should emphasize aerobic and combined training lasting at least 8-12 weeks, which is more effective in improving physical performance. IMPACT: Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of physical training in improving physical performance after myocardial revascularization.

Development and reliability of a test for assessing executive functions during exercise.

Previous research suggests that performance on executive functions tests may be different at rest, versus when one is engaged in physical exercise. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop an integrated system that evaluates executive functions during exercise. We conducted two test-retest studies, with ten healthy male volunteers participating in each study. Participants visited the laboratory three (Study 1) or four (Study 2) times. During the first visit in both studies, questionnaires were administered, and a maximal cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPT) was performed. In Study 1, during the second and third visits, participants exercised on a cycle ergometer at a moderate intensity for 30 minutes before starting the Flanker/Reverse Flanker test while they were still cycling. In Study 2, during the second visit, participants performed three sets of the executive functions test while sitting on the bike, with a 5 min interval between each set. On visits 3 and 4, participants performed the same exercise protocol as the one described in Study 1. In summary, our results indicated that the Flanker/Reverse Flanker test that we developed and conducted in exercising individuals has similar elements to previous versions and can be considered a reliable test for executive functions assessment during exercise.

Fatores motivacionais dos alunos e avaliação da qualidade de aulas online de ginástica artística / Children motivational factors and quality assessment of artistic gymnastics online training sessions / Factores motivacionales de los estudiantes y evaluación de la calidad de las clases online de gimnasia artística

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar fatores motivacionais para a participação em aulas online de ginástica artística (GA) e a satisfação dos alunos quanto à qualidade dessas aulas. Uma amostra de 39 alunos respondeu ao Inventário de Motivação para Prática Desportiva e a um questionário estruturado para avaliação da qualidade das aulas online. Um total de 67%, 53% e 30% dos alunos consideraram "muito importante" os motivos relacionados à "competência esportiva", "saúde" e "amizade/lazer", respectivamente. Todas as dimensões avaliadas no questionário sobre a qualidade das aulas apresentaram satisfação superior a 75%. Portanto, a "Competência esportiva" é o principal fator motivacional para a prática de aulas online de GA. De maneira geral, os alunos se mostraram satisfeitos com a qualidade dessas aulas.

ABSTRACT This study aimed to analyse the motivational factors for artistic gymnastics (AG) online training sessions and the children's perception regarding the quality of this training. A sample of 39 children answered the Motivation for Sports Practice Inventory and a structured questionnaire to assess the quality of online sessions. A total of 67%, 53%, and 30% of the children reported the reasons related to "sports competence", "health", and "friendship/leisure" are "very important", respectively. All dimensions evaluated in the structured questionnaire showed a percentage of satisfaction greater than 75%. Therefore, "Sports competence" is the main motivational factor for participation in AG online training sessions. Overall, children were satisfied with the quality of this online training.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar factores de motivación para la participación en las clases de gimnasia artística (GA) en línea y satisfacción de los alumnos con respecto a las mismas. Una muestra de 39 alumnos respondió al Inventario de Motivación para la Práctica Deportiva y a un cuestionario que evaluaba las clases. Un total de 67%, 53% y 30% de los estudiantes consideraron "muy importantes" las razones relacionadas con "competencia deportiva", "salud" y "amistad/ocio", respectivamente. La calidad de las clases mostró una satisfacción superior al 75%. Por lo tanto, la "competencia deportiva" es el principal factor de motivación para la práctica de las clases online de AG. La mayoría de los estudiantes están satisfechos con la calidad de las clases.

Estimated energy expenditure and training intensity in young female artistic gymnasts

Abstract Aim: This study determined the energy expenditure and effort intensity of athletes during women's artistic gymnastics training sessions. Methods: Ten gymnasts (age 10.9 ± 1.7 years) performed a test to estimate the maximum rate of oxygen uptake (VO2max), during which the maximum heart rate (HRmax) was also obtained. The heart rate (HR) of these gymnasts was recorded during five training sessions and then used to estimate the exercise intensity and energy expenditure. Results: Mean duration of training sessions was 4.08 ± 0.42 h, with mean HR corresponding to 137 ± 8 bpm or 69.0 ± 3.5% of HRmax. Gymnasts spent less training time at 90-100% HRmax compared to the other HR ranges (p < 0.05). Time spent at 60-70% and 70-80% was higher compared to 80-90% HRmax (p = 0.012 and p = 0.001, respectively). The training impulse was 239.2 ± 35.4 AU. Estimated energy expenditure was 768.3 ± 168.5 kcal, metabolic rate was 3.1 ± 0.6 kcal/min, and the metabolic equivalent of task (MET) corresponded to 6.1 ± 0.6. Conclusion: Young gymnasts performed prolonged and moderate-intensity training sessions that generated high energetic demands. This information is beneficial to gymnasts since the coaching team can use the data to control the training load and prescribe a proper diet.

No Effects of Mental Fatigue and Cerebral Stimulation on Physical Performance of Master Swimmers.

Background: Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state caused by extended periods of cognitive effort, and evidence suggests that mentally fatigued athletes present impaired physical performance. Different ergogenic aids have been proposed to counteract the deleterious effects of mental fatigue, but whether brain stimulation can counteract mental fatigue is still unknown. This scenario is even more obscure considering the effects of these interventions (mental fatigue induction and brain stimulation) in a very experienced population consisting of master athletes. Method: Ten master swimmers (30 ± 6 years old and 14 ± 8 years of experience) participated in the study. They underwent four experimental conditions before an 800-m freestyle test: mental fatigue with brain stimulation; mental fatigue without brain stimulation; absence of mental fatigue with brain stimulation; and absence of mental fatigue and no brain stimulation. Mental fatigue was induced by a cognitively demanding Stroop Color Test, whereas stimulation was applied on the temporal cortex. After that, the athletes swan 800 m as fast as possible and provided their ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) every 200 m. Results: Mental fatigue was effectively induced, as evidenced by a greater fatigue perception and more errors in the last blocks of the cognitive task. Mental fatigue induction did not influence performance (time to complete the swimming trial) and RPE. Similarly, brain stimulation failed to change these two parameters, regardless of mental fatigue induction. Conclusion: The prolonged physical performance of experienced master athletes is not influenced, under the present conditions, by mental fatigue induction, cerebral stimulation, and their association.

Independent effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation and exposure to environmental heat stress on aerobic performance and thermoregulatory responses in exercising rats.

Evidence indicates that aerobic performance is degraded either by environmental heat stress or sleep deprivation. However, whether these conditions interact to produce more significant performance impairment deserves further investigation. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of experimental sleep deprivation (24 h or 96 h) on aerobic performance and thermoregulatory responses in rats exercised on a treadmill at different environmental conditions. Adult male Wistar rats were subjected to rapid eye movement sleep deprivation (RSD) using the modified multiple platform method and were then subjected to an incremental-speed exercise until they were fatigued. Treadmill running was performed in a temperate (24°C) or warm (31°C) environment, and the colonic temperature (an index of core body temperature; TCORE) and the tail-skin temperature (TSKIN; an index of cutaneous heat loss) were recorded. 24-h and 96-h RSD produced small magnitude reductions in aerobic performance (Cohen's d = 0.47-0.58) and minor changes in thermoregulation. Relative to control rats, sleep-deprived rats showed a higher TCORE at the exercise initiation and a higher threshold for activating cutaneous heat loss, but unchanged TCORE and TSKIN at fatigue. Exercise at 31°C induced large reductions in performance (d = 0.82-1.29) and marked changes in thermoregulation, as evidenced by higher TCORE and TSKIN at fatigue, compared to exercise at 24°C. Interestingly, none of the effects induced by RSD were exacerbated by environmental heat stress and vice-versa, indicating that both conditions did not interact. We conclude that RSD and heat stress modulate aerobic performance and thermoregulatory responses by acting independently.

Physical exercise-induced thermoregulatory responses in trained rats: Effects of manipulating the duration and intensity of aerobic training sessions.

This study investigated the effects of increasing the intensity and/or duration of aerobic training sessions on thermoregulatory responses in rats subjected to exercises in temperate and warm environments. Thirty-two adult male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: a control (CON) group and three groups that were subjected to an 8-week aerobic training, during which the physical overload was achieved by predominantly increasing the exercise intensity (INT), duration (DUR) or by increasing both in an alternate manner (ID). During the last week of training, the rats received an abdominal sensor implant to measure their core body temperature (TCORE) by telemetry. After the training protocol, the 32 rats were subjected to incremental speed-exercises in temperate (23 °C) and warm (32 °C) environments. The rats had their TCORE recorded while running on a treadmill, and the ratio between the increase in TCORE and distance traveled was calculated to estimate thermoregulatory efficiency. All training protocols increased the rats' thermoregulatory efficiency during the incremental-speed exercise at 23 °C; i.e., trained rats attained faster running speeds but unchanged TCORE at fatigue compared to CON rats. However, none of the load components of training sessions - intensity or duration - was more effective than the other in improving this efficiency. At 32 °C, the aerobic training protocols did not influence the exercise-induced thermoregulatory responses. Our data indicate that different progressions in aerobic training performed at temperate conditions improved thermoregulatory efficiency during incremental exercise in the same environment; this training-induced adaptation was not clearly observed when running in warmer conditions.

Impaired thermoregulation in spontaneously hypertensive rats during physical exercise is related to reduced hypothalamic neuronal activation.

This study aimed to evaluate the physical exercise-induced neuronal activation in brain nuclei controlling thermoregulatory responses in hypertensive and normotensive rats. Sixteen-week-old male normotensive Wistar rats (NWRs) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) were implanted with an abdominal temperature sensor. After recovery, the animals were subjected to a constant-speed treadmill running (at 60% of the maximum aerobic speed) for 30 min at 25 °C. Core (Tcore) and tail-skin (Tskin) temperatures were measured every minute during exercise. Ninety minutes after the exercise, the rats were euthanized, and their brains were collected to determine the c-Fos protein expression in the following areas that modulate thermoregulatory responses: medial preoptic area (mPOA), paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN), and supraoptic nucleus (SON). During treadmill running, the SHR group exhibited a greater increase in Tcore and an augmented threshold for cutaneous heat loss relative to the NWR group. In addition, the SHRs showed reduced neuronal activation in the mPOA (< 49.7%) and PVN (< 44.2%), but not in the SON. The lower exercise-induced activation in the mPOA and PVN in hypertensive rats was strongly related to the delayed onset of cutaneous heat loss. We conclude that the enhanced exercise-induced hyperthermia in hypertensive rats can be partially explained by a delayed cutaneous heat loss, which is, in turn, associated with reduced activation of brain areas modulating thermoregulatory responses.