Commentary on Campbell et al.'s "Creating a University Strategic Plan to Address Relationship Violence and Sexual Misconduct": Sustainability and Replicability Concerns.

Campbell et al. provided a candid summary of a long-term strategic plan to address relationship violence and sexual misconduct (RVSM) at Michigan State University (MSU). Coming in the aftermath of a national scandal and public outcry regarding MSU's lack of response to RVSM on its campus, the authors describe a coordinated university community response to understanding the prevalence of RVSM on campus, developing policy to respond to RVSM, and reestablishing community and survivor trust. In this commentary, we explore the innovations and sustainability of MSU's strategic plan and its potential replicability at other institutions of higher learning.

Sexual Trauma Informed Understanding of Longitudinal Depression among Repeat Juvenile Offenders.

Childhood sexual assault (CSA) victimization and depression are global public health concerns that disproportionately affect youths involved in the juvenile justice system. Little research has examined the influence of CSA on the stability of depressive symptoms among repeat juvenile offenders. The present study tested a gendered model of the association between lifetime CSA victimization and depression for three time points: baseline juvenile assessment entry; second reentry; and third reentry. Further, covariate analyses were conducted to explore the impact of socio-demographics on CSA victimization and depression. Results indicate that CSA victimization was associated directly with baseline depression and indirectly with depression at second reentry for both male and female justice-involved youths. For white, male youth, there were significantly higher rates of depression over time, than other males. However, age, African American or Hispanic race/ethnicity, living situation, and urbanity were not significantly associated with CSA victimization at baseline or depression over time. These findings underscore the need for juvenile justice services that address exposure to childhood trauma and mental illness more effectively.

Assessing the Validity of Self-Reports of Marijuana Use among Adolescents Entering the Juvenile Justice System: Gender Differences.

Objective: Scant research exists on the validity of self-reported marijuana use using biological assays among adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system. This exploratory study examined gender (sex) differences in underreporting of marijuana use and the impact of age, race/ethnicity, living situation, depression, family problems, sexual risk behaviors, previous drug treatment, and juvenile justice placement. Methods: Self-reports of past year marijuana use were validated with urinalysis, and those testing positive for marijuana use were selected for study. The sample was 256 females and 885 males, aged 12 to 18, entering an urban juvenile assessment center in a southeastern U.S. state between 2017 and 2019. Results: Results indicated significant differences in marijuana underreporting (tested positive but self-reported no use), with 37% of females and 55% of males underreporting use. For males, Hispanic ethnicity, African American race, sexually transmitted infection (STI), and secure detention placement increased the odds of underreporting, while having an incarcerate parent and previous drug treatment decreased the odds. For females, number of sexual partners decreased the odds of underreporting of marijuana use. Conclusion: These findings imply use of collateral information, such as urine tests, as a recommendation for juvenile justice intake to corroborate self-reports and guide risk assessment.

College Students' Beliefs About Domestic Violence: A Replication and Extension.

In recent decades, significant effort and money have been spent to change social and legal responses to domestic violence and affect public perceptions. A small body of research has examined individuals' opinions about what behaviors are considered domestic violence. Using a sample of college students, the present study examined a modified version of a somewhat popular instrument used to measure beliefs about domestic violence, extending previous work done by Carlson and Worden. Results indicated beliefs about domestic violence are multidimensional, depending on the nature of the behavior and, in part, the gender of the perpetrator. Opinions about the lawfulness of these behaviors fit the same factor structure as beliefs about domestic violence. Demographic characteristics, current relationship status, secondhand experiences with domestic violence, and perceived prevalence of domestic violence in the community are generally not related to beliefs about domestic violence or the lawfulness of these behaviors. However, attributions of blame on the victim are negatively related to domestic violence beliefs and lawfulness. Moreover, lawfulness is a key covariate for domestic violence beliefs. In addition, results also indicate that the gender of the perpetrator is an important variable affecting student's beliefs about sexual assault behaviors. Results from this study support the prevailing ideas behind the Battered Women's Movement that enacting policies and educational programs deeming domestic violence socially, morally, and legally wrong could shift long-standing sociocultural beliefs about men's use of violence against women. Implications of this study for research and policy specific to college students are discussed.

Testing the Validity of an Internal Power Theory of Interpersonal Violence.

The assertion that the motive behind battering is "power and control" is commonly accepted. Indeed, the most commonly cited "theory" behind Batterer Intervention Programs, a primary criminal justice system response to domestic violence, is that domestic violence offenders are motivated by their need to obtain "power and control." However, this theory has not been fully developed or empirically tested. Researchers have argued for the need to turn attention back to developing better theoretical models with clear conceptualizations and operationalizations of the power construct. Wagers articulated such a theory and introduced a "super construct" called internal power. This article seeks to further develop and empirically test Wagers's theory. Confirmatory factor analysis is used to examine the viability of the internal power construct, and structural equation modeling is used to test the relationship between the internal power factor and self-reported interpersonal abusive behaviors. Findings indicate internal power is a viable construct that warrants further exploration and offer preliminary support for internal power theory as an explanation of intimate partner violence.

Individual- and Community-Level Factors in the STD Status of Justice-Involved Youth: Multi-Group, Exploratory Two-Level Analysis.

Justice-involved youth display higher prevalence rates of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), in comparison with youth in the general population, highlighting a critical public health concern. Individual factors are important predictors of STDs, but only provide a partial understanding of this public health issue. Communities experiencing higher levels of disorder and lower levels of cohesion tend to have fewer institutional resources available, which may impact sexual risk behavior and STDs. However, few studies have examined the association between community characteristics and STD prevalence among adolescents. The current study examined community-level (n = 106) characteristics and individual-level attributes in explaining STDs among justice-involved youth (n = 1233: n = 515 female; n = 718 male). At the individual level, results showed older males and those with more drug-related problems were more likely to be STD positive, while females with more sexual partners and those with less drug-related problems were more likely to be STD positive. At the community level, females residing in areas with fewer educated residents were more likely to be STD positive. These gender differences were significant, suggesting a gendered perspective is important for understanding STD infection. The justice system represents a critical opportunity in the treatment and prevention of STDs for youth.

Does Training and Coursework in Domestic Violence Affect Students' Perceptions of Behaviors as Domestic Violence?

Some argue that training and/or coursework in domestic violence (DV) could impact the beliefs criminal justice (CJ) majors have about DV and, in turn, affect their future job performance in cases involving victims of DV. This study examined the association of previous education and training in DV on the beliefs college students hold about what behaviors qualify as DV. Further, it examined the association between CJ versus non-CJ majors on beliefs about DV behaviors. Results indicated prior education on DV, but not training outside of coursework, was associated with differences in students' beliefs about acts of sexual aggression qualifying as DV. Education and training on DV were not significantly related to differences in beliefs about acts of physical or verbal/emotional aggression being DV. Moreover, CJ majors are less likely to believe that verbal/emotional aggression was an act of DV, compared to non-CJ majors. Implications of these findings for policy and educational efforts impacting CJ majors are discussed.

Health Risk Behavior Among Justice Involved Male and Female Youth: Exploratory, Multi-Group Latent Class Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Youth involved in the juvenile justice system experience a disproportionate prevalence of serious mental health issues, substance abuse, and are at an increased risk of engaging in risky sexual practices. Gender differences exist, with girls at a markedly greater risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted disease. OBJECTIVES: The present study seeks to determine if there are subgroups of male and female youth who differ in their health risk behavior. If so, do any male or female subgroups at different levels of health risk differ in regard to their sociodemographic and psychological factors, and finally, what are intervention/service delivery implications of these differences. METHODS: Youth were participants in an innovative health service at a centralized intake facility located in a large southeastern U.S. city. Latent class analysis and multinomial logistic regression is utilized to examine the heterogeneity of health risk behaviors across gender groups in a sample of 777 newly arrested youth. RESULTS: Results indicate a three class solution provided the optimal fit with the data for each gender group: a Lower Health Risk group, a Higher Health Risk group, and a Highest Health Risk group. Multinomial logistic regression analysis identified significant sociodemographic and depression effects among both male and female youth. Conclusions/Importance: Youth characterized by risky sexually behavior, elevated depression, and drug involvement should be the focus of integrated intervention services. This study documents the critical need for front end, juvenile justice intake facilities to provide behavioral and public health screening, with treatment follow-up, on newly arrested youth.

A Multigroup, Longitudinal Study of Truant Youths, Marijuana Use, Depression, and STD-Associated Sexual Risk Behavior.

Truant youth are likely to engage in a number of problem behaviors, including sexual risky behaviors. Previous research involving non-truant youth has found sexual risk behaviors to be related to marijuana use and depression, with differential effects for male and female youth. Using data collected in a NIDA funded, prospective intervention project, results are reported of a male-female, multi-group, longitudinal analysis of the relationships among truant youth baseline sexual risk behavior, marijuana use, and depression, and their sexual risk behavior over four follow-up time points. Results indicated support for the longitudinal model, with female truants having higher depression scores, and showing stronger relationships between baseline depression and future engagement in sexual risk behavior, than male truants. Findings suggest that incorporating strategies to reduce depression and marijuana use may decrease youth sexual risk behavior.

Longitudinal Effects of a Second-Order Multi-Problem Factor of Sexual Risk, Marijuana Use, and Delinquency on Future Arrest Among Truant Youths.

Based on problem-behavior theory (Jessor & Jessor, 1977), a second-order problem behavior model of delinquency, marijuana use, and risky sexual behavior over five waves was estimated among truant adolescents. The study also investigated the influence of the problem factor on future arrest charges and the effect of socio-demographics on problem behavior and future crime. Results confirm the existence of a second-order latent factor of problem behaviors. Problem behaviors predicted more future arrest charges. Age was related to problem behaviors and future arrest charges, and family income was related to problem behavior. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Impact of Brief Intervention Services on Drug-Using Truant Youths' Self-Reported Delinquency and Arrest Charges: A Longitudinal Study.

The issue of delinquency among truant youth is insufficiently documented in the literature. There is a need to elucidate this issue, and assess the efficacy of interventions to reduce this problem behavior. The present, NIDA-funded study addressed this gap by examining the impact of a Brief Intervention (BI), originally designed to address youth substance use, on their delinquent behavior over an 18-month follow-up period (for self-reported delinquency) and a 24-month follow-up period (for official record delinquency). A number of significant BI intervention effects with sizable effect sizes were found, as well as a number of marginally significant BI effects. In particular, significant reductions in arrest charges at 24-month follow-up for youth receiving BI services compared to controls were among the key findings of this study. Service delivery implications and directions for future analyses are discussed.

A Comparison of the Batterer Intervention and Prevention Program With Alternative Court Dispositions on 12-Month Recidivism.

Studies of batterer intervention and prevention programs (BIPPs) offer mixed results regarding their effect on recidivism. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of BIPP for cases assigned to a misdemeanor family court. This study focused on determining whether BIPP cases, compared with alternative sanctions, had significantly lower recidivism rates 12 months after program involvement. Findings indicated that BIPP was more effective than jail or regular dismissal in reducing the likelihood of future arrests, but not plea deferred adjudication and conditional dismissal. Results argue toward the efficacy of some form of treatment versus simply receiving jail time.

Differential Effects of Mental Health Problems Among Truant Youths.

Research indicates at-risk youth are more likely to experience emotional and psychological problems. Young people who are often truant from school represent a group of at-risk youth, but one for which mental health issues are understudied. This study examined heterogeneity of mental health problems among a sample of 300 truant adolescents using latent class analysis (LCA). LCA indicated the sample of truants was best represented by four latent subgroups of youth with low mental health problems; high depression, low mania; high mania, low depression; and high depression and mania. These subgroups were examined in relation to sociodemographic and psychosocial measures at baseline and after truancy offenses. Results indicated general and unique differences in these covariates across the four latent classes. Service and practice implications of better understanding mental health issues of truant youth are discussed.

The Validity of Truant Youths' Marijuana Use and Its Impact on Alcohol Use and Sexual Risk Taking.

Few studies investigating the validity of marijuana use have used samples of truant youth. In the current study, self-reports of marijuana use are compared with urine test results for marijuana to identify marijuana underreporting among adolescents participating in a longitudinal Brief Intervention for drug-involved truant youth. It was hypothesized that marijuana underreporting would be associated with alcohol underreporting and engaging in sexual risk behaviors. The results indicated marijuana underreporting was significantly associated with self-denial of alcohol use, but not associated with sexual risk behavior. Also, there was an age effect in marijuana use underreporting such that younger truant youth were more likely to underreport marijuana use, compared to older truant youth. Implications for policy and future research are discussed.

Sexual Risk Behavior among Male and Female Truant Youths: Exploratory, Multi-Group Latent Class Analysis.

Little is known of sexual risk behaviors among truant youths across gender. This study utilized latent class analysis to examined heterogeneity of sexual risk behaviors across gender among a sample of 300 truant adolescents. Results revealed two latent subgroups within gender: low vs. high sexual risk behaviors. There were gender differences in baseline covariates of sexual risk behaviors, with male truants in higher risk group experiencing ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) problems, and female truants in higher risk group experienced marijuana use and depression symptoms. African-American race was a significant covariate for high sexual risk behaviors for both genders. Service and practice implications of sexual risk issues of truant youth are discussed.

Brief Intervention for Truant Youth Sexual Risk Behavior and Marijuana Use.

Substance use and sexual risk behaviors are common among adolescents. Although attention has focused primarily on alcohol use, less is known about the relationship between marijuana use and sexual risk behavior among high-risk youth. Since truant youth often experience problems in school, troubled family situations, and other psychosocial problems, they represent an important group of high-risk youth to study. Previous research suggests that truant youth are at considerable risk of continuing their troubled behavior in school and entering the juvenile justice system. It is also likely that truant youth are involved in marijuana use and sexual risk behavior at a higher rate, than the general youth population. Involving them in effective intervention services could reduce these risk behaviors. The current study presents interim findings from a NIDA-funded experimental, brief intervention (BI) study involving truant youths and their parents/guardians. Longitudinal data were analyzed to study: (1) the relationships between the youths' marijuana use and engaging in sexual risk behavior over time, and (2) the effects of a substance use BI on their marijuana use and sexual risk behavior. Analyses examined a growth model for parallel processes in marijuana use and sexual risk behavior, and an assessment of the effect of the intervention on linear and quadratic trends, and on subgroups of youth differing in their sexual risk behavior and marijuana use. Implications of the results for future research and service delivery are considered.

Impact of Brief Intervention Services on Drug Using Truant Youth Arrest Charges over Time.

School truancy is a serious concern in the U.S., with far-reaching negative consequences. Truancy has been positively associated with substance use and delinquent behavior; however, research is limited. Consequently, the Truancy Brief Intervention Project was established to treat and prevent substance use and other risky behaviors among truants. This article examines whether the Brief Intervention program is more effective in preventing future delinquency over a 12-month follow-up period, than the standard truancy program. Results indicate the Brief Intervention was marginally significant in effecting future delinquency among truants, compared to the standard truancy program. Future implications of this study are discussed.

Brief Intervention Impact on Truant Youth Attitudes to School and School Behavior Problems: A Longitudinal Study.

Truancy continues to be a major problem, affecting most school districts in the U.S. Truancy is related to school dropout, with associated adverse consequences, including unemployment and delinquency. It is important to obtain a more complete picture of truants' educational experience. First, the present study sought to examine the longitudinal growth (increasing/decreasing trend) in truant youths' attitudes toward school and misbehavior in school (disobedience, inappropriate behavior, skipping school). Second, this study focused on examining the impact of a Brief Intervention (BI) targeting the youths' substance use, as well as socio-demographic and background covariates, on their attitudes toward school and school behavior problems over time. A linear growth model was found to fit the attitudes toward school longitudinal data, suggesting the youths' attitudes toward school are related across time. An auto-regressive lag model was estimated for each of the school misbehaviors, indicating that, once initiated, youth continued to engage in them. Several socio-demographic covariates effects were found on the youths' attitudes towards school and school misbehaviors over time. However, no significant, overall BI effects were uncovered. Some statistically significant intervention effects were found at specific follow-up points for some school misbehaviors, but none were significant when applying the Holm procedure taking account of the number of follow-ups. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Brief Intervention for Truant Youth Sexual Risk Behavior and Alcohol Use: A Parallel Process Growth Model Analysis.

Truant youths represent a challenging, yet very promising group of at-risk youth to study. In addition to problems in school, they frequently experience troubled family situations, emotional/ psychological problems, involvement in substance use, and delinquency. Given the problems often experienced by truant youth, it is likely they are engaging in alcohol use and sexual risk behavior at a higher rate, than the general youth population. Identification of these youths' problems and early placement into effective intervention services would benefit them, their families, and society. The current study presents interim findings from an ongoing, NIDA-funded experimental, Brief Intervention (BI) study involving truant youths and their parent/guardians. Baseline, 3-month, 6-month, and 12-month follow up data were analyzed to determine whether alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors were longitudinally related, examine the effects of the intervention on longitudinal alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors, identify latent subgroups of youths in the data for alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors, and determine whether the intervention influenced these subgroups. Results indicated alcohol use and sexual risk were longitudinally related. Subgroups of youth were also identified based on alcohol use and sexual risk behavior levels and trends. Further, limited treatment effects were observed for alcohol use. Implications of the results for future research and service delivery are considered.