Overview of the 2007 Australian outbreak of equine influenza.

In August 2007 equine influenza (EI) was diagnosed in Australia's horse population following the failure to contain infection in quarantine after the importation of one or more infected horses. The response had many unique features, and addressed financial, social, economic, human and animal health, trade and recovery issues. The outbreak and the associated control measures had a vast impact on individual horse owners, the horse industry and associated sectors in both infected and uninfected states.

The August 2007 equine influenza response management framework.

This section outlines the most important issues addressed in the management of the response in the two infected states, New South Wales and Queensland. There were differences in the management of the response between the states for logistic, geographic and organisation structural reasons. Issues included the use of control centres, information centres, the problems associated with the lack of trained staff to undertake all the roles, legislative issues, controls of horse movements, the availability of resources for adequate surveillance, the challenges of communication between disparate groups and tracing the movements of both humans and horses.

Vaccination program in the response to the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia.

At the time of the initial notification of the occurrence of equine influenza (EI) in Australia in August 2007, vaccination was restricted to horses for which it was an import requirement and only with the approval of the state or territory Chief Veterinary Officer. This paper describes the complexities involved in the selection of a vaccine and its distribution. A combination of ring, predictive and blanket vaccination was implemented during the response. The specific vaccination programs, including its use in buffer zones and for movement of horses, the performance of the vaccine, any adverse reactions and the effect on exposure of vaccinated horses to circulating virus, are also described. Vaccination is considered to have made a valuable contribution to the containment and subsequent eradication of EI from Australia and to risk management in the resumption of horse activities in affected areas from December 2007. Movement restrictions and other biosecurity measures were critically important in controlling the spread of EI and contributing to its eventual eradication, and vaccination was an aid to these measures.

A rotational stereoscopic 3-dimensional movement aftereffect.

A stereoscopic rotational movement aftereffect (MAE) and a stereoscopic bi-directional MAE were generated by rotation of a cyclopean random dot cylinder in depth and by movement of two cyclopean random dot planes in opposite directions, respectively. Cross-adaptational MAEs were also generated on each other, but not with stimuli lacking any disparity. Cross-adaptation MAEs were generated between stereoscopic and non-stereoscopic random dot stimuli moving in the one X/Y plane. Spontaneous reversals in direction of movement were observed with bistable stimuli lacking disparity. Two models of the middle temporal area were considered which might explain both the stereoscopic MAEs and the spontaneous reversals.

The three-dimensional frequency organization of the inferior colliculus of the cat: a 2-deoxyglucose study.

The 3-dimensional (3-D) functional organization of the cat's inferior colliculus (IC) was examined using the 2-deoxyglucose method. Animals were dichotically stimulated with pure tone stimuli at an intensity of 80 dB SPL. Autoradiographic sections from these animals, cut in the three standard planes, were serially reconstructed to reveal the 3-D topography of the isofrequency sheets of labelling. In all 3-D reconstructions, the isofrequency sheets extend rostrocaudally through the IC with the rostral aspect of the sheet being situated more ventral than its caudal aspect. In the mediolateral dimensions, sheets are angled at between 40 degrees and 60 degrees to the horizontal, running from a dorsomedial to a ventrolateral position. The low-frequency sheets (0.5 and 2 kHz) are dorsolaterally convex and situated in the dorsolateral region of the IC. The 4 and 10 kHz isofrequency sheets have a helical structure and are situated in the mid-region of the IC. The high-frequency sheets (20 and 30 kHz) are dorsolaterally concaved and situated in the ventromedial region of the IC. The topography of these isofrequency sheets generally agree with, and extended our knowledge of, the tonotopic organization of the IC as derived from electrophysiological studies. The functional organization revealed by the 2-deoxyglucose method only partially correlated with the neural laminae in the anatomical models of the IC proposed by Rockel and Jones [J. Comp. Neurol. 147 (1973) 11-60] and Oliver and Morest [J. Comp. Neurol. 222 (1984) 237-264]. It is therefore concluded that the neural laminar organization of the IC may not be a necessary substrate for the tonotopic organization seen the IC.

Intensity and frequency functions of [14C]2-deoxyglucose labelling in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus in the cat.

The frequency organization of the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICC) in the anesthetised cat was quantitatively mapped using [14C]2-deoxyglucose. From a standardised rostrocaudal region of the ICC, the position of peak selective labelling along the tonotopic axis closely conformed to the reported tonotopic organization of this nucleus. The position of the peak was found not to significantly change its position along the tonotopic axis with increasing stimulus intensity. However, the amplitude of peak uptake and width of selective labelling were shown to monotonically increase with increase in stimulus intensity. The increase in width of selective labelling, about the position of peak uptake, showed a slight asymmetry toward the high-frequency regions of the ICC. A 2-DG frequency-position function for the ICC, similar to that for the cochlea, enabled the width of 2-DG bands to be expressed in terms of their frequency spread along the tonotopic axis. This inturn enabled 2-DG tuning curves to be plotted which, when compared to electrophysiologically determined tuning curves, showed marked similarities. The minimum threshold and width (Q10) of these 2-DG tuning curves fell within the range reported for single units in the cat auditory pathway.

Two movement aftereffects: evidence for luminance- and color-movement pathways.

Two movement aftereffects (MAEs) that bear closely on the issue of visual processing of color and movement have been isolated. Following adaptation with a vertical luminance stimulus a strong MAE occurred with the same stationary test stimulus oriented horizontally and also in a perfectly uniform field. Neither effect occurred following adaptation with a color equiluminance stimulus. These aftereffects have not been reported before. It is concluded that there are at least three pathways for movement, a color, a color-plus-luminance, and a luminance pathway.

Cochleotopic selectivity of a multichannel scala tympani electrode array using the 2-deoxyglucose technique.

The 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique was used to study the cochleotopic selectivity of a multichannel scala tympani electrode array in four cats with another acting as an unstimulated control. Each animal was unilaterally deafened and a multichannel electrode array inserted 6 mm into the scala tympani. Thresholds to electrical stimulation were determined by recording electrically evoked auditory brainstem responses (EABRs). Each animal was injected with 2-DG, and electrically stimulated using bipolar electrodes located either distal or proximal to the round window. The contralateral ear was stimulated with acoustic tone pips at frequencies that matched the electrode place. Stimulation of both distal and proximal bipolar electrodes at 3 x EABR threshold, evoked localized 2-DG labelling in both ipsilateral cochlear nucleus (CN) and the contralateral inferior colliculus (IC), which was very similar in orientation and breadth to labelling evoked by the contralateral tone pips. The cochleotopic position of labelling to proximal stimulation was located in the 24-26 kHz region of each structure, whereas the distal labelling was located around 12 kHz. Distal stimulation at 10 x EABR threshold produced very broad 2-DG labelling in IC centered around the 12 kHz place. The present 2-DG results clearly illustrate cochleotopic selectivity using multichannel bipolar scala tympani electrodes. The extent of this selectivity is dependent on electrical stimulus levels. The 2-DG technique has great potential in evaluating the efficacy of new electrode array designs.

Spatial-frequency-contingent color aftereffects: adaptation with one-dimensional stimuli.

The McCollough effect was shown to be spatial-frequency selective by Lovegrove and Over (1972) after adaptation with vertical colored square-wave gratings separated by 1 octave. Adaptation with slide-presented red and green vertical square-wave gratings separated by 1 octave failed to produce contingent color aftereffects (CAEs). However, when each of these gratings was adapted alone, strong CAEs were produced. Adaptation with vertical colored sine-wave gratings separated by 1 octave also failed to produce CAEs, but strong effects were produced by adaptation with each grating alone. By varying the spatial frequency of the test sine wave, CAEs were found to be tuned for spatial frequency at 2.85 octaves after adaptation of 4 cycles per degree (cpd) and at 2.30 octaves after adaptation of 8 cpd. Adaptation of both vertical and horizontal sine-wave gratings produced strong CAEs, with bandwidths ranging from 1.96 to 2.90 octaves and with lower adapting contrast producing weaker CAEs. These results indicate that the McCollough effect is more broadly tuned for spatial frequency than are simple adaptation effects.

Spatial-frequency-contingent color aftereffects: adaptation with two-dimensional stimulus patterns.

The spatial-frequency theory of vision has been supported by adaptation studies using checkerboards in which contingent color aftereffects (CAEs) were produced at fundamental frequencies oriented at 45 degrees to the edges. A replication of this study failed to produce CAEs at the orientation of either the edges or the fundamentals. Using a computer-generated display, no CAEs were produced by adaptation of a square or an oblique checkerboard. But when one type of checkerboard (4 cpd) was adapted alone, CAEs were produced on the adapted checkerboard and on sine-wave gratings aligned with the fundamental and third harmonics of the checkerboard spectrum. Adaptation of a coarser checkerboard (0.80 cpd) produced CAEs aligned with both the edges and the harmonic frequencies. With checkerboards of both frequencies, CAEs were also found on the other type of checkerboard that had not been adapted. This observation raises problems for any edge-detector theory of vision, because there was no adaptation to edges. It was concluded that spatial-frequency mechanisms are operating at both low- and high-spatial frequencies and that an edge mechanism is operative at lower frequencies. The implications of these results are assessed for other theories of spatial vision.

The development of frequency representation in the inferior colliculus of the kitten.

While morphologically the kitten's cochlea matures first at the basal or high-frequency region, behavioural and physiological evidence suggests that it responds first to low-frequency sound. Explanations of this paradox include the suggestion that the spatial representation of frequency within the cochlea changes as a function of age. We have used the [14C]-2-deoxyglucose technique to study the development of frequency representation in the central auditory system of the kitten. We report here that while the locations within the inferior colliculus (IC) where high- and mid-frequency sounds are represented shift markedly between 10 and 35 days of age, the location where low-frequency sound is represented does not alter. The IC representation of low frequencies is adult-like by 10 days of age but that of higher frequencies continues to mature until as many as 35 days. Despite its morphological immaturity with respect to other regions, the apex of the cochlea appears to be the first region to become tuned to those frequencies to which it is tuned in the adult. We found little labelling at 5 and 7 days of age to 75-80 dB stimuli, but it is quite possible that the high-frequency region might respond to very intense low frequencies before 10 days of age. to very intense low frequencies before 10 days of age.

Colocalization of calbindin and GABA in medial nucleus of the trapezoid body of the rat.

Using immunocytochemical methods, both calbindin and GABA were found to be colocalized in the somas of all the cells of the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (NMTB) of the rat auditory system. In the lateral superior olive (LSO), calbindin was also found in the terminals but not in the cells. Some terminal labelling was found in the medial superior olive (MSO). GABA was also found in the somas of some cells in both LSO and MSO, but most of the labelling was in terminals. In the rat, calbindin appears to be more involved in a pathway that detects interaural intensity differences.

Negative afterimages and the McCollough effect.

Four experiments were conducted to test earlier claims about the relationship between the negative afterimage and the McCollough effect. The first claim (Hansel & Mahmud, 1978) is that long-lasting afterimages occur when induced by the same alternating-stimulus procedure as that used to induce the McCollough effect. The second claim (Murch & Hirsch, 1972) is that afterimages can themselves induce McCollough effects if they are induced and paired sequentially with grating patterns. In testing these claims, a reliable computer-controlled color-cancellation technique developed earlier was used to measure the apparent color of both afterimages and McCollough effects objectively. No support was found for the first claim following alternative presentation of two homogeneously colored regions for total periods of 5 min (Experiment 1) and 20 min (Experiment 2). The second claim was fully supported: After an induction period of 7.3 min, a McCollough effect occurred for a red-vertical pairing but not for a green-horizontal pairing (Experiment 3); but after an induction period of 20 min, McCollough effects occurred strongly for both pairings (Experiment 4). The theoretical implications of these outcomes are considered in the context of recent theories of color and pattern processing in the visual system.

Interaural sound pressure level differences associated with sound-source locations in the frontal hemifield of the domestic cat.

Interaural sound pressure level differences (ILDs) associated with a range of sound-source azimuths and elevations in the frontal hemifields of four cats were measured for each of seven pure-tone stimuli ranging in frequency from 2-32 kHz. The overall pattern of ILD across location at each frequency was remarkably similar in all cats. At 2, 4 and 8 kHz the relationships of ILD to azimuth and elevation were generally monotonic with ILD increasing with increasing azimuth. At 12 kHz and above, however, non-monotonic relationships developed and circumscribed regions of particularly large, positive and negative ILDs were apparent. That ILDs associated with many sound-source locations on the near side of the head are negative in sign has not been widely noted in the previous literature. The data obtained in this study were compared with those from previous studies and the acoustical mechanisms likely to have contributed to production of the observed ILDs were considered. Some implications of the data for auditory localization in three-dimensional space were discussed.

Functional morphology in the inferior colliculus of the marmoset.

The inferior colliculus of the marmoset was studied in sections prepared by Nissl and Golgi techniques. As in other primates and subprimates it can be divided into a central nucleus (CN) and a cortex, further divisible into dorsal cortical and lateral zones. Afferent fibres enter CN from the lateral lemniscus and fan out from posteroventrolateral to anterodorsomedial, forming a set of laminae along which neuronal somata and dendrites tend to be aligned. Neurons are commonly bitufted or bipolar, and sometimes multipolar, with dendritic arbors oriented along the laminae. Other axons cut across the laminae and are probably efferent fibres destined for the brachium of the inferior colliculus en route to higher levels. The cortex is composed of a variety of bipolar and multipolar neurons and is not laminated. Injection of 2-deoxyglucose while exposing the marmoset to auditory stimulation demonstrates that tones at 4 and 30 kHz cause labelling along the laminae near, respectively, the dorsolateral and ventromedial limits of CN.

The frequency organization of the inferior colliculus of the guinea pig: A [14C]-2-deoxyglucose study.

The [14C]-2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique was used to study the frequency organization of the inferior colliculus (IC) of the guinea pig. Discrete regions of heightened 2-DG labelling were observed in the ICs of animals exposed to a variety of pure-tone stimuli. Regions associated with 1, 4, 10 and 19 kHz pure tones were described and displayed in three-dimensional representations. The IC of the guinea pig was found to be arranged as a series of sheet-like, iso-frequency planes that extend throughout the nucleus from its caudal to its rostral pole. Iso-frequency planes associated with low frequencies are located dorsolaterally in the nucleus and those associated with higher frequencies are located progressively more ventromedially. The predominant orientation, in the frontal plane, of all iso-frequency planes is oblique from dorsomedial to ventrolateral. Most planes, however, twist about their caudal-to-rostral axis in a caudal-to-rostral, horizontal-to-vertical direction. The extent to which each plane twists is frequency-dependent; planes associated with low frequencies twist most and those associated with high frequencies do not twist at all.