Estimating distances to baleen whales using multipath arrivals recorded by individual seafloor seismometers at full ocean depth.

Ocean bottom seismometer networks can record opportunistic data sets of 20-Hz fin whale calls. Because networks are often too sparse for multi-station tracking, single-station methods are needed to estimate call density. We investigated a method to range to singing fin whales at full ocean depths using the spacing of water column multiples. Calls were detected by cross-correlating a spectrogram with a template call. To enhance multipath signals, we considered 20-min windows and either summed the spectrograms of all calls aligned on the strongest detection before measuring the multipath spacing or measured the spacing directly from the autocorrelation of the cross correlation time series. We evaluated the methods at five sites with contrasting seafloor and subsurface properties, bathymetric relief, and water depths of 4000-6000 m, using fin whale songs at four sites and a sei whale song at the fifth. The autocorrelation method works best, and ranges can be obtained to >15 km. Ranging at sedimented sites requires careful accounting for subsurface reflections. Ranges have considerable uncertainty in regions of bathymetric relief. The method requires that the time between calls is different from that of the multipaths and does not work reliably when more than one whale is singing nearby.

Distributed acoustic sensing recordings of low-frequency whale calls and ship noise offshore Central Oregon.

Distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is a technique that measures strain changes along an optical fiber to distances of ∼100 km with a spatial sensitivity of tens of meters. In November 2021, 4 days of DAS data were collected on two cables of the Ocean Observatories Initiative Regional Cabled Array extending offshore central Oregon. Numerous 20 Hz fin whale calls, northeast Pacific blue whale A and B calls, and ship noises were recorded, highlighting the potential of DAS for monitoring the ocean. The data are publicly available to support studies to understand the sensitivity of submarine DAS for low-frequency acoustic monitoring.

A method for tracking blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) with a widely spaced network of ocean bottom seismometers.

Passive acoustic monitoring is an important tool for studying marine mammals. Ocean bottom seismometer networks provide data sets of opportunity for studying blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) which vocalize extensively at seismic frequencies. We describe methods to localize calls and obtain tracks using the B call of northeast Pacific blue whale recorded by a large network of widely spaced ocean bottom seismometers off the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The first harmonic of the B call at ~15 Hz is detected using spectrogram cross-correlation. The seasonality of calls, inferred from a dataset of calls identified by an analyst, is used to estimate the probability that detections are true positives as a function of the strength of the detection. Because the spacing of seismometers reaches 70 km, faint detections with a significant probability of being false positives must be considered in multi-station localizations. Calls are located by maximizing a likelihood function which considers each strong detection in turn as the earliest arrival time and seeks to fit the times of detections that follow within a feasible time and distance window. An alternative procedure seeks solutions based on the detections that maximize their sum after weighting by detection strength and proximity. Both approaches lead to many spurious solutions that can mix detections from different B calls and include false detections including misidentified A calls. Tracks that are reliable can be obtained iteratively by assigning detections to localizations that are grouped in space and time, and requiring groups of at least 20 locations. Smooth paths are fit to tracks by including constraints that minimize changes in speed and direction while fitting the locations to their uncertainties or applying the double difference relocation method. The reliability of localizations for future experiments might be improved by increasing sampling rates and detecting harmonics of the B call.

Estimating range to a vocalizing fin whale using the timing and amplitude of multipath arrivals.

A semi-automated method is described to range to vocalizing fin whales using the timing and amplitude of multipath arrivals measured on seafloor receivers. Calls are detected and multipath arrivals identified with a matched filter. Multipath times and relative amplitudes are predicted as a function of range by ray tracing. Because the direct and first water-column multiple arrivals are not always observed, different hypotheses for the observed arrival paths must be considered. For two arrivals, an amplitude threshold is used to determine if the first arrival is the direct path and if not, the call is disregarded as distant. When three or more arrivals are detected, three hypotheses for the paths of arrivals are considered; the solution is the hypothesis and range that minimizes the timing and optionally, amplitude ratio or absolute amplitude residual. The method is tested with data from two ocean bottom seismometers, one on the Juan de Fuca Ridge and the other in the Cascadia Basin. Solutions obtained by minimizing a combined residual from timing and an empirical absolute amplitude model extracted from the data yield reliable ranges up to 5 km at both sites, and are sufficient to estimate call density using point transect distance sampling.

Spatial and temporal trends in fin whale vocalizations recorded in the NE Pacific Ocean between 2003-2013.

In order to study the long-term stability of fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) singing behavior, the frequency and inter-pulse interval of fin whale 20 Hz vocalizations were observed over 10 years from 2003-2013 from bottom mounted hydrophones and seismometers in the northeast Pacific Ocean. The instrument locations extended from 40°N to 48°N and 130°W to 125°W with water depths ranging from 1500-4000 m. The inter-pulse interval (IPI) of fin whale song sequences was observed to increase at a rate of 0.54 seconds/year over the decade of observation. During the same time period, peak frequency decreased at a rate of 0.17 Hz/year. Two primary call patterns were observed. During the earlier years, the more commonly observed pattern had a single frequency and single IPI. In later years, a doublet pattern emerged, with two dominant frequencies and IPIs. Many call sequences in the intervening years appeared to represent a transitional state between the two patterns. The overall trend was consistent across the entire geographical span, although some regional differences exist. Understanding changes in acoustic behavior over long time periods is needed to help establish whether acoustic characteristics can be used to help determine population identity in a widely distributed, difficult to study species such as the fin whale.

Estimating the location of baleen whale calls using dual streamers to support mitigation procedures in seismic reflection surveys.

In order to mitigate against possible impacts of seismic surveys on baleen whales it is important to know as much as possible about the presence of whales within the vicinity of seismic operations. This study expands on previous work that analyzes single seismic streamer data to locate nearby calling baleen whales with a grid search method that utilizes the propagation angles and relative arrival times of received signals along the streamer. Three dimensional seismic reflection surveys use multiple towed hydrophone arrays for imaging the structure beneath the seafloor, providing an opportunity to significantly improve the uncertainty associated with streamer-generated call locations. All seismic surveys utilizing airguns conduct visual marine mammal monitoring surveys concurrent with the experiment, with powering-down of seismic source if a marine mammal is observed within the exposure zone. This study utilizes data from power-down periods of a seismic experiment conducted with two 8-km long seismic hydrophone arrays by the R/V Marcus G. Langseth near Alaska in summer 2011. Simulated and experiment data demonstrate that a single streamer can be utilized to resolve left-right ambiguity because the streamer is rarely perfectly straight in a field setting, but dual streamers provides significantly improved locations. Both methods represent a dramatic improvement over the existing Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) system for detecting low frequency baleen whale calls, with ~60 calls detected utilizing the seismic streamers, zero of which were detected using the current R/V Langseth PAM system. Furthermore, this method has the potential to be utilized not only for improving mitigation processes, but also for studying baleen whale behavior within the vicinity of seismic operations.

Seismic constraints on caldera dynamics from the 2015 Axial Seamount eruption.

Seismic observations in volcanically active calderas are challenging. A new cabled observatory atop Axial Seamount on the Juan de Fuca ridge allows unprecedented real-time monitoring of a submarine caldera. Beginning on 24 April 2015, the seismic network captured an eruption that culminated in explosive acoustic signals where lava erupted on the seafloor. Extensive seismic activity preceding the eruption shows that inflation is accommodated by the reactivation of an outward-dipping caldera ring fault, with strong tidal triggering indicating a critically stressed system. The ring fault accommodated deflation during the eruption and provided a pathway for a dike that propagated south and north beneath the caldera's east wall. Once north of the caldera, the eruption stepped westward, and a dike propagated along the extensional north rift.

Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise.

Seafloor spreading is largely unobserved because 98 per cent of the global mid-ocean-ridge system is below the ocean surface. Our understanding of the dynamic processes that control seafloor spreading is thus inferred largely from geophysical observations of spreading events on land at Afar in East Africa and Iceland. However, these are slow-spreading centres influenced by mantle plumes. The roles of magma pressure and tectonic stress in the development of seafloor spreading are still unclear. Here we use seismic observations to show that the most recent eruption at the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise just North of the Equator initiated at a melt-rich segment about 5 kilometres long. The change in static stress then promoted almost-concurrent rupturing along at least 35 kilometres of the ridge axis, where tectonic stress had built up to a critical level, triggering magma movement. The location of impulsive seismic events indicative of lava reaching the seafloor suggests that lava subsequently erupted from multiple isolated magma lenses (reservoir chambers) with variable magma ascent rates, mostly within 48 hours. Therefore, even at magmatically robust fast-spreading ridges, a substantial portion of the spreading may be due to tectonic stress building up to a critical level rather than magma overpressure in the underlying magma lenses.

Sound source localization technique using a seismic streamer and its extension for whale localization during seismic surveys.

Marine seismic surveys are under increasing scrutiny because of concern that they may disturb or otherwise harm marine mammals and impede their communications. Most of the energy from seismic surveys is low frequency, so concerns are particularly focused on baleen whales. Extensive mitigation efforts accompany seismic surveys, including visual and acoustic monitoring, but the possibility remains that not all animals in an area can be observed and located. One potential way to improve mitigation efforts is to utilize the seismic hydrophone streamer to detect and locate calling baleen whales. This study describes a method to localize low frequency sound sources with data recoded by a streamer. Beamforming is used to estimate the angle of arriving energy relative to sub-arrays of the streamer which constrains the horizontal propagation velocity to each sub-array for a given trial location. A grid search method is then used to minimize the time residual for relative arrival times along the streamer estimated by cross correlation. Results from both simulation and experiment are shown and data from the marine mammal observers and the passive acoustic monitoring conducted simultaneously with the seismic survey are used to verify the analysis.

Sounds in the ocean at 1-100 Hz.

Very-low-frequency sounds between 1 and 100 Hz propagate large distances in the ocean sound channel. Weather conditions, earthquakes, marine mammals, and anthropogenic activities influence sound levels in this band. Weather-related sounds result from interactions between waves, bubbles entrained by breaking waves, and the deformation of sea ice. Earthquakes generate sound in geologically active regions, and earthquake T waves propagate throughout the oceans. Blue and fin whales generate long bouts of sounds near 20 Hz that can dominate regional ambient noise levels seasonally. Anthropogenic sound sources include ship propellers, energy extraction, and seismic air guns and have been growing steadily. The increasing availability of long-term records of ocean sound will provide new opportunities for a deeper understanding of natural and anthropogenic sound sources and potential interactions between them.

Fin whale tracks recorded by a seismic network on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, Northeast Pacific Ocean.

Fin whale calls recorded from 2003 to 2004 by a seafloor seismic network on the Endeavour segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge were analyzed to determine tracks and calling patterns. Over 150 tracks were obtained with a total duration of ~800 h and swimming speeds from 1 to 12 km/h. The dominant inter-pulse interval (IPI) is 24 s and the IPI patterns define 4 categories: a 25 s single IPI and 24/30 s dual IPI produced by single calling whales, a 24/13 s dual IPI interpreted as two calling whales, and an irregular IPI interpreted as groups of calling whales. There are also tracks in which the IPI switches between categories. Call rates vary seasonally with all the tracks between August and April. From August to October tracks are dominated by the irregular IPI and are predominantly headed to the northwest, suggesting that a portion of the fin whale population does not migrate south in the fall. The other IPI categories occur primarily from November to March. These tracks have slower swimming speeds, tend to meander, and are predominantly to the south. The distribution of fin whales around the network is non-random with more calls near the network and to the east and north.

Source levels of fin whale 20 Hz pulses measured in the Northeast Pacific Ocean.

Source levels of fin whale calls can be used to determine range to recorded vocalizations and to model maximum communication range between animals. In this study, source levels of fin whale calls were estimated using data collected on a network of eight ocean bottom seismometers in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. The acoustic pressure levels measured at the instruments were adjusted for the propagation path between the calling whales and the instruments using the call location and estimating losses along the acoustic travel path. A total of 1241 calls were used to estimate an average source level of 189 ± 5.8 dB re 1µPa at 1 m. This variability is largely attributed to uncertainties in the horizontal and vertical position of the fin whale at the time of each call and the effect of these uncertainties on subsequent calculations. Variability may also arise from station to station differences within the network. For call sequences produced by a single vocalizing whale, no consistent increase or decrease in source level was observed over the duration of a dive. Calls within these sequences that immediately followed gaps of 27 s or longer were classified as backbeat calls and were consistently lower in both frequency and amplitude.

Tracking fin whales in the northeast Pacific Ocean with a seafloor seismic network.

Ocean bottom seismometer (OBS) networks represent a tool of opportunity to study fin and blue whales. A small OBS network on the Juan de Fuca Ridge in the northeast Pacific Ocean in ~2.3 km of water recorded an extensive data set of 20-Hz fin whale calls. An automated method has been developed to identify arrival times based on instantaneous frequency and amplitude and to locate calls using a grid search even in the presence of a few bad arrival times. When only one whale is calling near the network, tracks can generally be obtained up to distances of ~15 km from the network. When the calls from multiple whales overlap, user supervision is required to identify tracks. The absolute and relative amplitudes of arrivals and their three-component particle motions provide additional constraints on call location but are not useful for extending the distance to which calls can be located. The double-difference method inverts for changes in relative call locations using differences in residuals for pairs of nearby calls recorded on a common station. The method significantly reduces the unsystematic component of the location error, especially when inconsistencies in arrival time observations are minimized by cross-correlation.

Skew of mantle upwelling beneath the East Pacific Rise governs segmentation.

Mantle upwelling is essential to the generation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges, and it is generally assumed that such upwelling is symmetric beneath active ridges. Here, however, we use seismic imaging to show that the isotropic and anisotropic structure of the mantle is rotated beneath the East Pacific Rise. The isotropic structure defines the pattern of magma delivery from the mantle to the crust. We find that the segmentation of the rise crest between transform faults correlates well with the distribution of mantle melt. The azimuth of seismic anisotropy constrains the direction of mantle flow, which is rotated nearly 10 degrees anticlockwise from the plate-spreading direction. The mismatch between the locus of mantle melt delivery and the morphologic ridge axis results in systematic differences between areas of on-axis and off-axis melt supply. We conclude that the skew of asthenospheric upwelling and transport governs segmentation of the East Pacific Rise and variations in the intensity of ridge crest processes.

The sound generated by mid-ocean ridge black smoker hydrothermal vents.

Hydrothermal flow through seafloor black smoker vents is typically turbulent and vigorous, with speeds often exceeding 1 m/s. Although theory predicts that these flows will generate sound, the prevailing view has been that black smokers are essentially silent. Here we present the first unambiguous field recordings showing that these vents radiate significant acoustic energy. The sounds contain a broadband component and narrowband tones which are indicative of resonance. The amplitude of the broadband component shows tidal modulation which is indicative of discharge rate variations related to the mechanics of tidal loading. Vent sounds will provide researchers with new ways to study flow through sulfide structures, and may provide some local organisms with behavioral or navigational cues.