Utility of Follow-up Radiographs in Type 1 Supracondylar Humerus Fractures.

OBJECTIVE: Supracondylar humerus (SCH) fractures are common among pediatric patients, with the severity categorized using the Gartland classification system. Type 1 SCH fractures are nondisplaced and treated with immobilization, while more displaced fractures require surgery. The need for follow-up radiographs, particularly for type 1 fractures, is an area where evidence is lacking. This study investigates the clinical value and financial implications of follow-up radiographs for type 1 SCH fractures, hypothesizing that they do not alter clinical management and, therefore, represent an unnecessary expense. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study, approved by the Institutional Review Board, focused on patients under 18 with nondisplaced SCH fractures treated nonoperatively. One hundred one type 1 SCH fractures, in which the fracture was visible on presenting radiographs, were chosen from patients presenting between January 2021 and December 2022. Charts were reviewed for demographic information, time of cast removal, and complications. A pediatric orthopaedic surgeon and orthopaedic resident reviewed the radiographs to confirm the injury to be a type 1 SCH fracture. RESULTS: Among the 101 patients, after the initial presentation, 79 attended an interim visit and 101 attended a "3-week follow-up" at an average of 23 days postinjury. All patients underwent radiographs during these visits for a total of 180 radiographs after confirmation of type 1 SCH fracture. No changes in management resulted from follow-up radiographs. One instance of refracture was noted ~3 months after cast removal. There were 180 superfluous follow-up radiographs taken at subsequent clinic visits. The total charge for these radiographs was $76,001.40, averaging $752.49 per patient. CONCLUSION: Follow-up radiographs for type 1 SCH fractures did not lead to changes in clinical management, aligning with previous findings in more severe SCH fractures. This approach can reduce costs, radiation exposure, and clinic time without compromising patient care. The study can reassure providers and parents about the lack of necessity for follow-up radiographs to document healing. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level-IV.

Delayed Presentation of Popliteal Artery Injury after Salter-Harris III Proximal Tibia Fracture.

Introduction: Proximal tibia physeal fractures in children are not very common but can be dangerous because they can harm popliteal fossa structures, especially the popliteal artery. Popliteal artery injuries (PAI) are most commonly the result of trauma to the lower extremity, including blunt force, hyperextension injuries, complex fractures, and knee dislocations that can compromise popliteal neurovascular structures. Case Presentation. A 14-year-old boy presents to the emergency department after being transferred from an outside hospital 24 hours after a left lower extremity hyperextension injury. Radiographs demonstrated a Salter-Harris III proximal tibia fracture with posterior displacement. ABIs were deferred due to palpable distal pulses and no evidence of compartment syndrome. Closed reduction and percutaneous pinning were planned to correct the fracture. Intraoperatively, it was discovered that knee extension decreased lower extremity perfusion while knee flexion returned perfusion. An angiography revealed a popliteal artery occlusion with no distal flow. Based on this, an above-knee to below-knee popliteal bypass using the contralateral great saphenous vein was performed followed by closed reduction and percutaneous pinning of the proximal tibia. Conclusion: Proximal tibia physeal injuries, especially the Salter-Harris III and IV injuries, warrant a high index of suspicion of popliteal artery injuries. Palpable pulses and delayed presentation in the distal lower extremity do not rule out a PAI because collateral flow to the anterior and posterior tibial arteries may mask signs of an avascular limb, highlighting the need for a thorough history and physical exam. The authors present this case to reaffirm the importance of an ankle-brachial index when evaluating hyperextension injuries with proximal tibial epiphyseal fractures.

Bilateral Femoral Shaft Fractures in a Young Child due to Nonaccidental Trauma: A Case Report and Literature Review.

Introduction: Bilateral femoral diaphyseal fractures in children due to nonaccidental trauma (NAT) are a rare occurrence, with no reported cases currently published in the literature. The authors present a case of an 8-month-old male who presented with bilateral femoral shaft fractures. History, physical examination, and radiographic findings support NAT as the cause of his injuries. Due to the patient's size and associated comorbidities, he was initially treated with Pavlik harness placement, rather than spica casting. The patient demonstrated appropriate radiographic evidence of fracture healing on follow-up. Case Report: An 8-month-old male with a complex past medical history presents to the emergency department. Per the patient's mother, he has been demonstrating a progressive loss of movement and refusal to bear weight in his bilateral lower extremities over the preceding 1-2 weeks. Other injuries include facial bruising and lesions indicative of subconjunctival hemorrhages. After orthopedics was consulted, the decision was made to treat the patient's bilateral femoral shaft fractures with a Pavlik harness, rather than spica casting, due to his small size and associated past medical history. The patient was subsequently discharged under foster care. Follow-up visit demonstrates appropriate fracture healing in the bilateral femoral diaphyses. Conclusion: Many cases of NAT in the pediatric population are initially missed. Orthopedic providers must maintain a high index of suspicion for NAT as many of these patients will present with musculoskeletal injuries. The authors report a rare case of NAT in a male child resulting in bilateral femoral diaphyseal fractures. The patient was successfully treated through Pavlik harness placement. Orthopedic providers should consider Pavlik harness placement as a viable option even for young children >6 months of age presenting with femoral shaft fractures if spica casting or open reduction internal fixation is not appropriate.

Taxonomic updates for diurnal velvet ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) in the United States of America.

This paper provides miscellaneous taxonomic updates for diurnal velvet ants in the USA. Six valid species of Dasymutilla Ashmead, 1899, one valid species of Ephuta Say, 1836 and six valid species of Pseudomethoca Ashmead, 1896 are regarded. Two new species are described: Pseudomethoca peremptrix sp. nov. and P. sonorae sp. nov. The female formerly associated with Dasymutilla zelaya (Blake, 1871) is recognized as a color variant of D. vestita (Lepeletier, 1845). Sixteen new synonymies are proposed: Dasymutilla chisos Mickel, 1928, syn. nov. under D. gloriosa (Saussure, 1868); D. cotulla Mickel, 1928, syn. nov., D. homole Mickel, 1928, syn. nov. and D. vandala Mickel, 1928, syn. nov. under D. vestita (Lepeletier, 1845); D. dorippa Mickel, 1928, syn. nov. under D. flammifera Mickel, 1928; D. ocydrome Mickel, 1928, syn. nov. under D. connectens (Cameron, 1895); Mutilla phaon Fox, 1899, syn. nov. under D. pseudopappus (Cockerell, 1895); M. zelaya Blake, 1871, syn. nov. under D. gorgon (Blake, 1871); Ephuta tentativa Schuster, 1951, syn. nov. under E. scrupea Say, 1836; P. dentifrontalis Bradley in Mickel, 1924, syn. nov. under P. athamas (Fox, 1899); P. albicoma Mickel, 1924, syn. nov., P. contumeliosa Mickel, 1935, syn. nov., P. manca Mickel, 1924, syn. nov. and P. oculissima Mickel, 1924, syn. nov. under P. contumax (Cresson, 1865); M. aeetis Fox, 1899, syn. nov. under P. sanbornii (Blake, 1871); and P. (Nomiaephagus) vanduzei Bradley, 1916, syn. nov. under P. wickhami (Cockerell & Casad, 1895).

Review of the tribe Mutillini (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) from the Oriental Region.

The species in the tribe Mutillini (Mutillidae: Mutillinae) sensu Waldren et al. (2022, in press) of the Oriental region are reviewed. Fourteen species in the genera Kurzenkotilla Lelej, 2005, Mutilla Linnaeus, 1758, Standfussidia Lelej, 2005, and Storozhenkotilla Lelej, 2005 are keyed, reviewed, and illustrated. The males of the genus Kurzenkotilla are described and associated with the females. One new species: Storozhenkotilla nathani Lelej, sp. nov., male is described from India (Karnataka and Kerala). New combinations are proposed for Kurzenkotilla harmandi (André, 1898), comb. nov., K. rufodorsata (Cameron, 1897), comb. nov., K. semiviolacea (André, 1896), comb. nov., K. cicatricifera (André, 1894), comb. nov., and Storozhenkotilla binghami (Lelej, 2005), comb. nov. Six new country records are presented: Kurzenkotilla niveosignata (André, 1894) from Pakistan, K. annamensis Lelej, 2005 from Thailand, K. visrara (Cameron, 1898) from India, K. scrobiculata (Hammer, 1962) from Nepal, K. rufodorsata (Cameron, 1897) from Nepal, and Storozhenkotilla binghami Lelej, 2005 from Sri Lanka. Specimens of Mutilla mikado Cameron, 1900 from China were misidentified as Mutilla europaea by Su et al. (2019), and we recognize M. mikado as the sole member of the genus Mutilla to occur in the Oriental region. A key to the species of Oriental Mutillini is provided.

Review of the tribe Smicromyrmini Bischoff, 1920 (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae).

Twenty-six genera and five subgenera of the tribe Smicromyrmini are reviewed. The tribe (528 valid species) is Afrotropical (15 genera /126 species), Palaearctic (13/213) and Oriental (14/204) in distribution. The females are known for 80%, and males for 87%, of the 26 genera and five subgenera. The hitherto unknown female of Rasnitsynitilla Lelej in Lelej & van Harten, 2006 is described. New combinations are proposed for Rasnitsynitilla bartolozzii (Lo Cascio et Grita, 2014), comb. nov. (from the genus Smicromyrme Thomson, 1870) and Skorikovia sanguinicollis (Klug, 1829), comb. nov. (from the genus Ephutomma Ashmead, 1899). The genus Indratilla Lelej, 1993 is newly recorded from India and the subgenus Eremotilla Lelej, 1985 from the Oriental Region. Keys to females and males of these genera and subgenera of Smicromyrmini are provided. Habitus photos of males and/or females are provided for each genus and subgenus.

Prevalence of Abnormal Ultrasonographic Findings in Asymptomatic Peroneal Tendons.

Background: The peroneus longus (PL) and peroneus brevis (PB) tendons comprise the lateral compartment of the leg and stabilize the foot during weightbearing. Peroneal tendinopathy can precipitate lateral ankle pain and induce functional disability. The progression of peroneal pathology to lateral ankle dysfunction is thought to stem from asymptomatic, subclinical peroneal tendinopathy. There may be clinical benefit to identifying asymptomatic patients with this condition before progression to disability. Various ultrasonographic characteristics have been observed in peroneal tendinopathy. The purpose of this study is to identify the frequency of subclinical tendinopathic characteristics in asymptomatic peroneal tendons. Methods: One hundred seventy participants underwent bilateral foot and ankle ultrasonographic examination. Images were assessed for abnormalities of the PL and PB tendons by a group of physicians who recorded frequencies of abnormalities. This team consisted of an orthopaedic surgeon specializing in foot and ankle surgery, a fifth-year orthopaedic surgery resident, and a family medicine physician with musculoskeletal sonographer certification. Results: A total of 340 PL and 340 PB tendons were assessed. Sixty-eight (20%) PL and 41 (12.1%) PB tendons had abnormal traits. Twenty-four PLs and 22 PBs had circumferential fluid, 16 PLs and 9 PBs had noncircumferential fluid, 27 PLs and 6 PBs had thickening, 36 PLs and 12 PBs had heterogenicity, 10 PLs and 2 PBs had hyperemia, and 1 PL had calcification. In Caucasian participants, male gender was associated with increased frequency of abnormal findings, but there were no other significant differences based on age, body mass index, or ethnicity. Conclusion: In our studied population of 170 patients who had no complaints of associated symptoms, we found that 20% of PLs and 12% of PBs displayed ultrasonographic abnormalities. When we included all unusual findings within and around the tendons, prevalence rates of ultrasonographic abnormalities were 34% for PLs and 22% for PBs. Level of Evidence: Level II, prospective cohort study.

Comparison of nonoperative versus operative management in pediatric gustilo-anderson type I open tibia fractures.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies suggest pediatric Gustilo-Anderson type I fractures, especially of the upper extremity, may be adequately treated without formal operative debridement, though few tibial fractures have been included in these studies. The purpose of this study is to provide initial data suggesting whether Gustilo-Anderson type I tibia fractures may be safely treated nonoperatively. METHODS: Institutional retrospective review was performed for children with type I tibial fractures managed with and without operative debridement from 1999 through 2020. Incomplete follow-up, polytrauma, and delayed diagnosis of greater than 12 h since the time of injury were criteria for exclusion. Data including age, sex, mechanism of injury, management, time-to-antibiotic administration, and complications were recorded. RESULTS: Thirty-three patients met inclusion criteria and were followed to union. Average age was 9.9 ± 3.7 years. All patients were evaluated in the emergency department and received intravenous antibiotics within 8 h of presentation. Median time-to-antibiotics was 2 h. All patients received cefazolin except one who received clindamycin at an outside hospital and subsequent cephalexin. Three patients (8.8%) received augmentation with gentamicin. Twenty-one patients (63.6%) underwent operative irrigation and debridement (I&D), and of those, sixteen underwent surgical fixation of their fracture. Twelve (36.4%) patients had bedside I&D with saline under conscious sedation, with one requiring subsequent operative I&D and intramedullary nailing. Three infections (14.3%) occurred in the operative group and none in the nonoperative group. Complications among the nonoperative patients include delayed union (8.3%), angulation (8.3%), and refracture (8.3%). Complications among the operative patients include delayed union (9.5%), angulation (14.3%), and one patient experienced both (4.8%). Other operative group complications include leg-length discrepancy (4.8%), heterotopic ossification (4.8%), and symptomatic hardware (4.8%). CONCLUSION: No infections were observed in a small group of children with type I tibia fractures treated with bedside debridement and antibiotics, and similar non-infectious complication rates were observed relative to operative debridement. This study provides initial data that suggests nonoperative management of type I tibial fractures may be safe and supports the development of larger studies.

Pediatric fractures following implant removal: A systematic review.

Objectives: To evaluate the available literature for postoperative fracture rates following implant removal in the pediatric population. Methods: A systematic review of articles in the PubMed and Embase computerized literature databases from January 2000 to June 2022 was performed using PRISMA guidelines. Randomized controlled trials, case-control studies, cohort studies (retrospective and prospective), and case series involving pediatric patients that included data on fracture rate following removal of orthopedic implants were eligible for review. Two authors independently extracted data from selected studies for predefined data fields for implant type, anatomic location of the implant, indication for implantation, fracture or refracture rate following implant removal, mean time to implant removal, and mean follow-up time. Results: Fifteen studies were included for qualitative synthesis. Reported fracture rates following implant removal vary based on several factors, with an overall reported incidence of 0%-14.9%. The available literature did not offer sufficient data for conduction of a meta-analysis. Conclusion: Our systematic review demonstrates that fracture following implant removal in pediatric patients is a relatively frequent complication. In children, the forearm and femur are the most commonly reported sites of fracture following removal of implants. Traumatic fractures treated definitively with external fixation have the highest reported aggregate rate of refracture. Knowledge of the incidence of this risk is important for orthopedic surgeons. There remains a need for well-designed studies and trials to further clarify the roles of the variables that contribute to this complication.

Delayed Diagnosis of Pediatric Sternoclavicular Joint Infections and Clavicular Osteomyelitis During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Report of 3 Cases.

Sternoclavicular joint infections and osteomyelitis of the clavicle are extremely rare infections, especially in the pediatric population. Early signs of these infections are nonspecific and can be mistaken for common upper respiratory infections such as COVID-19 and influenza. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are critical for preventing potentially fatal complications such as mediastinitis. We present three cases of sternoclavicular joint infections in the past year during the COVID-19 pandemic. All three patients had delayed diagnoses likely secondary to COVID-19 workup. Each patient underwent surgical irrigation and débridement. Two of three patients required multiple surgeries and prolonged antibiotic courses. Placement of antibiotic-impregnated calcium sulfate beads into the surgical site cleared the infection in all cases where they were used. All three patients made a full recovery; however, the severity of their situations should not be overlooked. Children presenting to the hospital with chest pain, fever, and shortness of breath should not simply be discharged based on a negative COVID-19 test or other viral assays. A higher index of suspicion for bacterial infections such as clavicular osteomyelitis is important. Close attention must be placed on the physical examination to locate potential areas of concentrated pain, erythema, or swelling to prompt advanced imaging if necessary.

Two New Species of Horcomutilla Casal, 1962 (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae), Description of Hitherto Unknown Males, and an Illustrated Key to All Known Species in the Genus.

Most holotype specimens of Horcomutilla and other non-type materials deposited in museums of the Americas and Europe were examined resulting in the recognition of 13 valid species in Horcomutilla occurring from Panama to southern Argentina. Six species are known from both sexes, six only from females and one only from the male. The new species Horcomutilla bernali Cambra & Williams, sp. nov., female and male, and Horcomutilla igriega Cambra & Williams, sp. nov., male, are described. The previously unknown males of H. denticeps (Spinola Spinola, Famille Mutillaires Latr Mem Acad Sci Turin 13:62-63, 1853) and H. piala Casal Casal, Physis 30:171-172, 1970, are recognized and described. Horcomutilla suis Casal Casal, Notas Mus La Plata, Zool 20:63-75, 1962 is recognized as a junior synonym of Horcomutilla denticeps (Spinola, Spinola, Famille Mutillaires Latr Mem Acad Sci Turin 13:62-63, 1853). Horcomutilla projectifrons (Cresson, Cresson, Trans Amer Ent Soc 28:1-82, 1902) is recognized as a junior synonym of Horcomutilla fronticornis (Burmeister, Burmeister, Abhandl Naturf Ges Halle 2:19-29, 1854). Horcomutilla toba Casal, Casal, Notas Mus La Plata, Zool 20:63-75, 1962 is recognized as a junior synonym of H. glabriceps (André, André, Anales Mus Nac Buenos Aires 3:169-214, 1908). The genus Horcomutilla is reported for the first time from Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Trinidad. An updated key for species of the genus is presented and diagnostic morphological characters to separate all species are illustrated.

Revision of the Traumatomutilla indica species-group (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae).

The Traumatomutilla indica species-group is reviewed, leaving it with 13 species known from both sexes, four known from females only and two known from males only. The following 28 junior synonyms are proposed: Traumatomutilla aemulata (Cresson, 1902) [=Mutilla caneta Cresson, 1902, syn. nov.]; T. centralis (Burmeister, 1875) [=T. fissiventris Andr, 1907, syn. nov.; =T. centralis boliviana Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T. contempta Andr, 1908a [=T. alhuampa Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T. geographica (Gerstaecker, 1874) [=T. seabrai Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T grossa (Gerstaecker, 1874) [=Mutilla abrupta Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =M. characterea Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.]; T. guayaca Casal, 1969 [=T. tayguaya Casal, 1969 syn. nov.]; T. indica (Linnaeus, 1758) [=M. sphegea Fabricius, 1804, syn. nov.]; T. parallela (Klug, 1821) [=M. almada Cresson, 1902, syn. nov.; =Ephuta lineifera Andr, 1903, syn. nov.; =T. indicoides Mickel, 1952, syn. nov.; =T. gausapata Mickel, 1952, syn. nov.; =T. pillinata Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T. puella (Gerstaecker, 1874) [=M. musculus Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =M. manca Cresson, 1902 syn. nov.; =M. viana Cresson, 1902, syn. nov.; =T. peperina Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T. spectabilis (Gerstaecker, 1874) [=M. funesta Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =M. melaleuca Gerstaecker, 1874 syn. nov.; =T. spectabilis chingona Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]; T. tristis (Klug, 1821) [=M. foveiventris Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =M. caxara Cresson, 1902, syn. nov.]; T. unimarginata (Cresson, 1902) [=M. cuiba Cresson, 1902, syn. nov.]; T. vidua (Klug, 1821) [=M. graphica Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =M. scripta Gerstaecker, 1874, syn. nov.; =T. cachimba Casal, 1969, syn. nov.; =T. scripta borrosa Casal, 1969, syn. nov.]. The hitherto unknown males of T. guayaca Casal, 1969, T. ingens (Andr, 1903), and female of T. selligera (Gerstaecker, 1874) are described. A new combination is proposed for Traumatomutilla impetuosa (Smih, 1879), comb. nov. from Mutilla. All species treated are redescribed and illustrated. Identification keys for males and females are also provided.

Review of female Andreimyrme Lelej (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae: Smicromyrmini).

Females of the East Asian velvet-ant genus Andreimyrme Lelej, 1995 are reviewed. The genus definition is extended to accommodate A. borkenti (Williams, 2019), comb. nov. (from Smicromyrme Thomson, 1870), and nine new species: A. auricoma Okayasu, sp. nov. (Malaysia), A. laminatihumeralis Okayasu, sp. nov. (Indonesia, Malaysia), A. matsumotoi Okayasu, sp. nov. (Vietnam), A. naturalis Williams, sp. nov. (Indonesia), A. rong Williams, sp. nov. (Thailand, Vietnam), A. silvorientalis Okayasu, sp. nov. (Indonesia), A. takensis Okayasu, sp. nov. (Thailand), A. ursasolaris Williams, sp. nov. (Indonesia), and A. yotoi Okayasu, sp. nov. (Laos, Vietnam). Diagnoses, distributional records, and illustrations are provided for these and four previously recognized species, A. neaera (Mickel, 1935), A. paniya Terine, Lelej Girish Kumar, 2021, A. sarawakensis Lelej, 1996, and A. substriolata (Chen, 1957). Andreimyrme borkenti is newly recorded from Vietnam. A key to species known from females is provided. Habitat preference of this genus is discussed based on collecting records.

Physeal-Sparing Rigid Intramedullary Nailing in Adolescent Tibial Shaft Fractures: A Pilot Study.

PURPOSE: Elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) and open reduction internal fixation (ORIF) are literature-supported operative treatments for displaced tibial shaft fractures in skeletally immature patients. Very little is written about rigid intramedullary nails (RIMNs) in adolescents. Our purpose is to describe a physeal-sparing, reamed, locked RIMN technique for adolescent tibial shaft fractures and report its safety. METHODS: Adolescent patients with tibial shaft fractures indicated for operative intervention at one institution were retrospectively identified from 2011-2018. Patients were classified based on method of fracture fixation. Primary outcomes included fracture union, reoperation, and complication rates. RESULTS: Thirteen patients were included in the RIMN arm, with an average age of 13.8 years. Two patients in the observational group underwent ESIN and seven patients underwent ORIF, with an average age of 11.5 years. Significant differences were found between time of immobilization (28 days vs 121 days), time to touch down weight bearing release (1 day vs 34 days), and hardware pain (2/13 vs 7/9). The RIMN group sustained fewer reoperations (2/13 vs 5/9). No differences were found in rates of complications or fixation failure between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our small pilot study, RIMNs in adolescents should be considered as a potential treatment option when a physeal-sparing distal start point is utilized. Additionally, short-term follow-up suggests safety. Patients who underwent the RIMN procedure required fewer reoperations compared with the observational group. Overall, fracture healing was similar across the two groups. The benefits of RIMN include early immobilization and improved weight-bearing profile. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Review of Eotrogaspidia Lelej (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae: Trogaspidiini).

Ten species of Eotrogaspidia Lelej, 1996, two related species of Trogaspidia Ashmead, 1899 and one related species of Vanhartenidia Lelej in Lelej van Harten, 2006 are revised. Before this study, Eotrogaspidia included the following four species: E. amans (André, 1909) (♂♀), E. auroguttata (Smith, 1855) (♂♀), E. ekka (Nurse, 1902) (♀) and E. oryzae (Pagden, 1934) (♂♀). In the present paper, four new species are described: E. adhabar sp. nov. (♂) (India, Nepal), E. buddha sp. nov. (♂♀) (India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka), E. hauseri sp. nov. (♂) (India, Nepal) and E. melanopleura sp. nov. (♀) (China). Three species are transferred to Eotrogaspidia from Trogaspidia: E. lena (Cameron, 1899), comb. nov. (♂), E. rubripes (André, 1901), comb. nov. (♀) and E. saussurei (Lelej, 2005), comb. nov. (♂♀). Mutilla ekka Nurse, 1902 from India is transferred from Eotrogaspidia to Vanhartenidia ekka, comb. nov. The male of E. saussurei is described. New synonymies are proposed for E. auroguttata (= T. vallicola Tsuneki, 1993, syn. nov.) and Trogaspidia mackieae (Cockerell, 1928) (= T. pacifica Tsuneki, 1972, syn. nov.). Eight new country records are presented: one from China, two from Laos, one from Vietnam, two from India, one from Iran, and one from Afghanistan. Female specimens of E. buddha sp. nov. were formerly misidentified as T. acidalia (Cameron, 1897), stat. resurr. by the late B. Petersen. The lectotype of T. acidalia is designated and illustrated to clarify its identity. Diagnoses and illustrations for reviewed species and a key to all known Eotrogaspidia species and related genera are provided for males and females.

Description of the male of Xystromutilla bucki Suárez, 1960 (Hymenoptera, Mutillidae), including new information on the biology of the genus.

The male of Xystromutilla bucki Suárez, 1960 is described and associated with the female based on couples reared from trap-nests occupied by Auplopus subaurarius Dreisbach, 1963 (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae). Information on the diapause of X. bucki and Pseudomethoca nr. chontalensis (Cameron, 1895) (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) is presented. Seasonal and annual variation in the abundance of X. turrialba Casal, 1969 are also given.

Systematic revision of the North American velvet ant genus Invreiella Suárez (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) with description of eleven new species.

The velvet ant genus Invreiella Suárez, 1966 is redescribed and revised. Females are grouped into five species-groups, with eleven new species described based on females: I. acuminata Waldren, sp. nov., I. australis Waldren, sp. nov., I. bimaculata Waldren, sp. nov., I. breviclypeata Waldren, sp. nov., I. chihuahuensis Waldren, sp. nov., I. cuernavaca Waldren, sp. nov., I. erythrocephala Waldren, sp. nov., I. manleyi Waldren, sp. nov., I. mesomexicana Waldren, sp. nov., I. suarezi Waldren, sp. nov., and I. tequila Waldren, sp. nov. One new combination is included, I. cephalargia (Mickel, 1924), comb. nov., formerly placed in Pseudomethoca Ashmead, 1896. Additionally, I. curoei Quintero Cambra, 2011 is synonymized with I. cardinalis (Gerstaecker, 1874), syn. nov., and I. megacantha (Cockerell Casad, 1894), stat. resurr., is treated as a nomen dubium. The lectotype of Mutilla satrapa Gerstaecker, 1874 originally designated by C. Mickel is here validated. An illustrated key to species is included.

Thistledown velvet ants in the Desert Mimicry Ring and the evolution of white coloration: Müllerian mimicry, camouflage and thermal ecology.

Adaptive coloration among animals is one of the most recognizable outcomes of natural selection. Here, we investigate evolutionary drivers of white coloration in velvet ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae), which has previously been considered camouflage with the fruit of creosote bush (Larrea tridentata). Our analyses indicate instead that velvet ants evolved white coloration millions of years before creosote bush was widespread in North America's hot deserts. Furthermore, velvet ants and the creosote fruit exhibit different spectral reflectance patterns, which appear distinct to potential insectivorous predators. While the white coloration in velvet ants likely did not evolve as camouflage, we find that white-coloured species remain cooler than their red/orange relatives, and therefore we infer the white coloration likely evolved in response to Neogene desertification. This study shows the importance of cross-disciplinary investigation and of testing multiple hypotheses when investigating evolutionary drivers of adaptive coloration.

Seasonal and annual abundance of Ephuta wasp (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae) in Panama

Introduction: Ephuta Say is a widespread New World genus of mutillid wasp whose ecology is poorly understood. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine how Ephuta species abundance varies annually and seasonally driven by weather conditions and hosts. Methods: Ephuta specimens, located in the "old forest" at Barro Colorado Island, were examined from weekly samples (2001-2006) of ten Malaise traps. The monthly abundance of each Ephuta species was compared with monthly average humidity, solar radiation, temperature and rainfall. Results: Nine species and ten morphospecies were identified. Most specimens were collected from March to June. April was the month reported with the greatest abundance. Of the four abiotic variables measured, only average monthly temperature was correlated with Ephuta abundance. Months with the highest number of Ephuta specimens were correlated with suspected host abundance, as indicated by the monthly abundance of Pompilidae (Hymenoptera) captured during the year 2007. Conclusions: We concluded that Ephuta display strong seasonal variation in abundance, with the peaks occurring during the end of the dry season and beginning of the rainy season, which correlate broadly with temperature and the abundance of their pompilid hosts.

Introducción: Ephuta es un género de avispas mutílidas ampliamente distribuido en el Nuevo Mundo y cuya ecología es poco conocida. Objetivo: El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar cómo varía la abundancia de especies de Ephuta anualmente y estacionalmente debido a las condiciones climáticas y sus hospederos. Métodos: Se examinaron especímenes de Ephuta tomados de muestras semanales (2001-2006) de diez trampas Malaise, ubicadas en el "bosque viejo" de Isla Barro Colorado. La abundancia mensual de cada especie de Ephuta se comparó con el promedio mensual de la humedad, la radiación solar, la temperatura y las precipitaciones. Resultados: Se identificaron nueve especies y diez morfoespecies. La mayoría de los especímenes fueron recolectados de marzo a junio. La mayor abundancia mensual promedio se dio en abril. De las cuatro variables abióticas medidas, solo la temperatura mensual promedio se correlacionó con la abundancia de Ephuta. Los meses con el mayor número de especímenes de Ephuta se correlacionan con la sospechosa abundancia del huésped, como lo indica la abundancia mensual de Pompilidae (Hymenoptera) capturada durante el 2007. Conclusiones: Ephuta muestra una fuerte variación estacional en la abundancia, con picos durante el final de la estación seca y el comienzo de la temporada de lluvias. Esta se correlaciona ampliamente con la temperatura y la abundancia de sus huéspedes pompílidos.