Sport-related concussions in baseball and softball: do mechanisms of injury affect recovery?

OBJECTIVE: Baseball and softball pose unique risks for sport-related concussion (SRC). Although these are not collision sports, concussions in baseball and softball can nonetheless involve high-speed impacts. In a regional, single-institution cohort of baseball and softball athletes who sustained an SRC, the current study sought to 1) describe the mechanisms of injury that led to SRC, and 2) compare initial symptom burden and recovery metrics across mechanisms, including time to return to learn (RTL), time to symptom resolution, and time to return to play (RTP) by mechanism of injury. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed of baseball and softball athletes 12 to 23 years old who sustained an SRC between November 2017 and April 2022. Mechanisms of injury were divided into two categories: 1) contact mechanism (i.e., what initiated contact with the injured player, such as head-to-ball), and 2) player mechanism (i.e., the action the injured player was performing at the time of injury, such as fielding). The recovery outcomes of time to RTL, symptom resolution, and RTP were compared between mechanisms using bivariate analysis and multivariable regression analysis, controlling for sex, age, time to present to concussion clinic, and initial total symptom score. RESULTS: The sample included 58 baseball and softball players (60.3% female, mean age 16.0 ± 1.9 years). Most SRCs (62.1%) occurred during competition. Head-to-ball (50.0%) was the most common contact mechanism, followed by head-to-head/body (31.0%) and head-to-wall/ground/equipment (17.2%). Fielding (63.8%) was the most common player mechanism, followed by drills (20.7%) and running (13.8%). SRCs sustained in practice had significantly longer RTL (median 10.0 [interquartile range (IQR) 3.3-16.3] vs 4.0 [IQR 2.0-8.0] days; U = 421.5, p = 0.031) and symptom resolution (37.0 [IQR 18.0-90.0] vs 14.0 [IQR 7.0-41.0] days; U = 406.5, p = 0.025) compared with SRCs sustained in competition. Multivariable regression analysis revealed that head-to-wall/ground/equipment contact mechanism was associated with longer RTL (ß = 0.30, 95% CI 0.07-0.54, p = 0.013). CONCLUSIONS: The current study found that SRCs in baseball and softball occurred more often in competition than in practice. Head-to-ball and fielding were the most common contact and player mechanisms, respectively. SRCs sustained in practice were associated with longer time to RTL and symptom resolution, and head-to-wall/ground/equipment was associated with longer RTL in multivariable regression analysis. These results provide empirical data to improve concussion safety in baseball/softball.

Acute psychological symptom profiles in high school athletes following sport-related concussion.

OBJECTIVE: Psychological symptoms following a sport-related concussion may affect recovery in adolescent athletes. Therefore, the aims of this study were to 1) describe the proportion of athletes with acute psychological symptoms, 2) identify potential predictors of higher initial psychological symptoms, and 3) determine whether psychological symptoms affect recovery in a cohort of concussed high school athletes. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of high school athletes (14-18 years of age) who sustained a sport-related concussion from November 2017 to April 2022 and presented to a multidisciplinary concussion center was performed. The main independent variable was psychological symptom cluster score, calculated by summing the four affective symptoms on the initial Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) (i.e., irritability, sadness, nervousness, feeling more emotional). The psychological symptom ratio was defined as the ratio of the psychological symptom cluster score divided by the total initial PCSS score. The outcomes included time to return to learn (RTL), symptom resolution, and time to return to play (RTP). Univariable and multivariable regressions were performed to adjust for demographic factors and health history. RESULTS: A total of 431 athletes (58.0% female, mean age 16.2 ± 1.3 years) were included. Nearly half of the sample (45%) reported at least one psychological symptom, with a mean psychological symptom cluster score of 4.2 ± 5.2 and psychological symptom cluster ratio of 0.10 ± 0.11. Irritability was the most commonly endorsed psychological symptom (38.1%), followed by feeling more emotional (30.2%), nervousness (25.3%), and sadness (22.0%). Multivariable regression showed that female sex (B = 2.15, 95% CI 0.91-3.39; p < 0.001), loss of consciousness (B = 1.91, 95% CI 0.11-3.72; p = 0.037), retrograde/anterograde amnesia (B = 1.66, 95% CI 0.20-3.11; p = 0.026), and psychological history (B = 2.96, 95% CI 1.25-4.70; p < 0.001) predicted an increased psychological symptom cluster score. Female sex (B = 0.03, 95% CI 0.00-0.06; p = 0.031) and psychological history (B = 0.06, 95% CI 0.02-0.10; p = 0.002) predicted an increased psychological symptom ratio. Multivariable linear regression showed that both higher psychological symptom cluster score and ratio were associated with longer times to RTL, symptom resolution, and RTP. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of high school athletes, 45% reported at least one psychological symptom, with irritability being most common. Female sex, loss of consciousness, amnesia, and a psychological history were significantly associated with an increased psychological symptom cluster score. Higher psychological symptom cluster score and psychological symptom ratio independently predicted longer recovery. These results reinforce the notion that psychological symptoms after concussion are common and may negatively impact recovery.

Examining for gender differences in return to learn following sport-related concussion in high school student athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Prior studies have investigated associations between gender, symptom resolution, and time to return to play following sport-related concussion (SRC). However, there is a notable gap in research regarding the association between gender and return to learn (RTL) in adolescents. Therefore, this study 1) compared the patterns of RTL between boys and girls who are high school student athletes, and 2) evaluated the possible association between gender and time to RTL after adjusting for covariates. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of a prospective surveillance program that monitored concussion recovery of athletes in high schools throughout the state of Maine between February 2015 and January 2023 was performed. The primary independent variable was gender, dichotomized as boys and girls. The primary outcome was time to RTL, defined by the number of days for an athlete to return to school without accommodations. Mann-Whitney U-tests were used to compare RTL between the boys and girls. Each athlete's RTL status was dichotomized (i.e., returned vs had not returned) at several time points following injury (i.e., 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks), and chi-square tests were performed to compare the proportions who achieved RTL between groups. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed to evaluate the predictive value of gender on RTL. Covariates included age, number of previous concussions, history of learning disability or attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, history of a psychological condition, history of headaches or migraines, initial Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT3/SCAT5) score, and days to evaluation. RESULTS: Of 895 high school athletes, 488 (54.5%) were boys and 407 (45.5%) were girls. There was no statistically significant difference in median [IQR] days to RTL between genders (6.0 [3.0-11.0] vs 6.0 [3.0-12.0] days; U = 84,365.00, p < 0.375). A greater proportion of boys successfully returned to learn without accommodations by 3 weeks following concussion (93.5% vs 89.4%; χ2 = 4.68, p = 0.030), but no differences were found at 1, 2, or 4 weeks. A multivariable model predicting days to RTL showed that gender was not a significant predictor of RTL (p > 0.05). Longer days to evaluation (ß = 0.10, p = 0.021) and higher initial SCAT3/SCAT5 scores (ß = 0.15, p < 0.001) predicted longer RTL. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of high school athletes, RTL did not differ between boys and girls following SRC. Gender was not a significant predictor of RTL. Longer days to evaluation and higher initial symptom scores were associated with longer RTL.

Identification of Preference "Phenotypes" in Men With Prostate Cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Patient preference assessment is key to high-quality decision-making in men with prostate cancer. We aimed to determine if "phenotypes" could be identified among men with prostate cancer, with each phenotype representing a cohort with a distinct combination of preferences. We wished to learn if there was an association between phenotype and treatment selection. METHODS: A prospective cohort of men with prostate cancer received a pre-visit decision aid. This software used conjoint analysis to quantify relative patient preferences for treatment-associated survival, quality of life outcomes, and recovery time. We collected patient clinical data, physician recommendation for active treatment or surveillance, and treatments received. Preferences were analyzed using latent class analysis to identify distinct classes of preference phenotypes. We compared patient characteristics and treatment choice across phenotypes, both univariately and in a multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: In 250 men who used the decision aid as part of routine care, latent class analysis revealed 3 phenotypic classes. Men in Class 1 had the highest concerns around recovery time and the lowest value on improving lifespan. Men in Class 2 had relatively evenly distributed concerns. Men in Class 3 had the lowest concerns around recovery time and risk of surgical complications. On multivariate analysis, treatment choice was not associated with preference-based phenotype. Only physician recommendation was associated with choice of active treatment. CONCLUSIONS: We identified the existence of 3 patient preference-based phenotypes in men with prostate cancer. Each phenotype had a unique combination of trade-offs when considering competing treatment outcomes. These phenotypes were not associated with treatment. Physician recommendation was the only factor determining treatment choice.

Sport-related concussions in wrestling: does mechanism of injury affect recovery?

BACKGROUND: Sport-related concussions (SRC) represent a significant concern for athletes. While popular contact sports such as football and soccer have been the focus of much SRC research, wrestling has received comparatively little attention. The current study aimed to: 1) describe the mechanisms of injury leading to SRC in wrestling; and 2) compare recovery outcomes based on mechanism of injury. METHODS: A retrospective, cohort study of wrestlers aged 12-18 who sustained a concussion between 11/2017-04/2022 was performed. Contact mechanism was defined as what initiated contact with the athlete's head/body. Player mechanism was defined as the activity the injured athlete was performing when the concussion occurred. Recovery outcomes were compared using Mann-Whitney-U Tests and multivariable regression analysis. RESULTS: Seventy-three (age=15.8±1.4 years; boys=73 [100.0%]) wrestlers were included. SRCs occurred more often in competition than in practice (66.2% vs. 33.8%, respectively). Head-to-ground/wall (56.2%) and takedown (58.9%) were the most common contact and player mechanisms, respectively. Bivariate analysis showed that head-to-head/body SRCs had longer time to symptom resolution compared to head-to-ground/wall SRCs (23.0 [14.8-46.5] vs. 14.0 [6.0-30.0] days; U=149.00, P=0.029), though the difference did not persist in multivariable analysis. For player mechanism, non-takedowns SRCs had longer time to symptom resolution than takedown SRCs (15.0 [6.0-24.0] vs. 28.5 [13.0-49.3]; U=166.5, P=0.019), but the difference also did not persist in multivariable analysis. Bivariate analysis revealed no significant difference in RTL between takedown and non-takedown SRCs (3.0 [2.0-6.0] vs. 4.0 [1.5-7.0]; U=484.50, P=0.708); however, in multivariable analysis, takedown SRCs were associated with longer RTL (ß=0.23, 95% CI: 0.02, 9.27; P=0.049). CONCLUSIONS: The current study found that SRCs occurred more commonly during competitions, and head-to-ground/wall and takedown were the most common contact and player mechanism, respectively. SRCs that occurred during takedowns were associated with longer RTL.

Symptoms of Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome are Common in Community-Dwelling Adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The consensus criteria for traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES), the possible in vivo clinical syndrome associated with significant repetitive head impacts, have only been minimally studied to date. This study examined the prevalence of the proposed core clinical features of TES in a sample of healthy adults. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey study was conducted through ResearchMatch, a national health volunteer registry. Participants were assessed for symptoms of TES based on the 2021 consensus criteria, including prior repetitive head impacts and core clinical features. Additional health information (e.g., concussion history, psychological health, sleep, chronic pain) was also evaluated. The consensus proposed research criteria for TES (i.e., reporting at least one progressive core clinical feature of TES, as in progressive difficulties with episodic memory, executive functioning, or neurobehavioral dysregulation) were applied to the sample. RESULTS: Out of 1100 participants (average age = 53.6 ± 17.7 years, 55% women), 34.6% endorsed one or more progressive core clinical features of TES. Participants with a significant history of contact sports (i.e., ≥ 5 years total, with ≥ 2 years in high school or beyond) had similar rates of endorsing a progressive core clinical feature of TES compared to those without significant histories of repetitive head impacts (36.4% vs 32.8%, respectively, χ2 = 0.52, p = 0.47). A significant history of repetitive head impacts in sports was not associated with endorsing a core clinical feature of TES in univariable or multivariable models (p > 0.47), whereas current depression/anxiety (odds ratio [OR] = 6.94), a history of psychiatric disorders (OR = 2.57), current sleep problems (OR = 1.56), and younger age (OR = 0.99) were significant predictors of TES status in a multivariable model. In a subsample of 541 participants who denied a lifetime history of contact sports, other forms of repetitive head impacts, and concussions, approximately 31.0% endorsed one or more progressive core clinical features of TES. Additionally, 73.5% of neurotrauma-naïve participants with current anxiety or depression reported at least one core progressive feature of TES, compared with 20.2% of those without clinically significant depression/anxiety symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: A considerable proportion of adults without a significant history of repetitive head impacts from sports endorsed core TES features, particularly those experiencing mental health symptoms. Having a significant history of contact sports was not associated with endorsing a core progressive clinical feature of TES, whereas other health factors were. These findings underscore the need for validating and refining TES criteria in samples with and without substantial neurotrauma histories.

Mechanisms of Injury Leading to Concussions in Collegiate Soccer Players: A CARE Consortium Study.

BACKGROUND: Few previous studies have investigated how different injury mechanisms leading to sport-related concussion (SRC) in soccer may affect outcomes. PURPOSE: To describe injury mechanisms and evaluate injury mechanisms as predictors of symptom severity, return to play (RTP) initiation, and unrestricted RTP (URTP) in a cohort of collegiate soccer players. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. METHODS: The Concussion Assessment, Research and Education (CARE) Consortium database was used. The mechanism of injury was categorized into head-to-ball, head-to-head, head-to-body, and head-to-ground/equipment. Baseline/acute injury characteristics-including Sports Concussion Assessment Tool-3 total symptom severity (TSS), loss of consciousness (LOC), and altered mental status (AMS); descriptive data; and recovery (RTP and URTP)-were compared. Multivariable regression and Weibull models were used to assess the predictive value of the mechanism of injury on TSS and RTP/URTP, respectively. RESULTS: Among 391 soccer SRCs, 32.7% were attributed to a head-to-ball mechanism, 27.9% to a head-to-body mechanism, 21.7% to a head-to-head mechanism, and 17.6% to a head-to-ground/equipment mechanism. Event type was significantly associated with injury mechanism [χ2(3) = 63; P < .001), such that more head-to-ball concussions occurred in practice sessions (n = 92 [51.1%] vs n = 36 [17.1%]) and more head-to-head (n = 65 [30.8%] vs n = 20 [11.1]) and head-to-body (n = 76 [36%] vs n = 33 [18.3%]) concussions occurred in competition. The primary position was significantly associated with injury mechanism [χ2(3) = 24; P < .004], with goalkeepers having no SRCs from the head-to-head mechanism (n = 0 [0%]) and forward players having the least head-to-body mechanism (n = 15 [19.2%]). LOC was also associated with injury mechanism (P = .034), with LOC being most prevalent in head-to-ground/equipment. Finally, AMS was most prevalent in head-to-ball (n = 54 [34.2%]) and head-to-body (n = 48 [30.4%]) mechanisms [χ2(3) = 9; P = .029]. In our multivariable models, the mechanism was not a predictor of TSS or RTP; however, it was associated with URTP (P = .044), with head-to-equipment/ground injuries resulting in the shortest mean number of days (14 ± 9.1 days) to URTP and the head-to-ball mechanism the longest (18.6 ± 21.6 days). CONCLUSION: The mechanism of injury differed by event type and primary position, and LOC and AMS were different across mechanisms. Even though the mechanism of injury was not a significant predictor of acute symptom burden or time until RTP initiation, those with head-to-equipment/ground injuries spent the shortest time until URTP, and those with head-to-ball injuries had the longest time until URTP.

Subclinical, long-term psychological symptoms following sport-related concussion: are athletes more depressed than we think?

INTRODUCTION: In adolescent and collegiate athletes with sport-related concussion (SRC), we sought to evaluate the prevalence and predictors of long-term psychological symptoms. METHODS: A cohort study was conducted of athletes 12-24-year-old diagnosed with SRC between November 2017 and April 2022. Athletes/proxies were interviewed on psychological symptoms (i.e. anger, anxiety, depression, and stress). Participants who scored ≥75th percentile on one or more PROMIS (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement System) measures were operationalized to have subclinical, long-term psychological symptoms. Uni/multivariable regressions were used. RESULTS: Of 96 participants (60.4% male), the average age was 16.6 ± 2.6 years. The median time from concussion to interview was 286 days (IQR: 247-420). A total of 36.5% athletes demonstrated subclinical, long-term psychological symptoms. Univariate logistic regression revealed significant predictors of these symptoms: history of psychiatric disorder (OR = 7.42 95% CI 1.37,40.09), substance use (OR = 4.65 95% CI 1.15,18.81), new medical diagnosis since concussion (OR = 3.43 95% CI 1.27,9.26), amnesia (OR = 3.42 95% CI 1.02,11.41), other orthopedic injuries since concussion (OR = 3.11 95% CI 1.18,8.21), age (OR = 1.24 95% CI 1.03,1.48), days to return-to-play (OR = 1.02 95% CI 1.00,1.03), and psychiatric medication use (OR = 0.19 95% CI 0.05,0.74). Multivariable model revealed significant predictors: orthopedic injuries (OR = 5.17 95% CI 1.12,24.00) and return-to-play (OR = 1.02 95% CI 1.00,1.04). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately one in three athletes endorsed long-term psychological symptoms. Predictors of these symptoms included orthopedic injuries and delayed RTP.

Recovery After Sport-Related Concussion in Collegiate Athletes With Self-Reported Pre-Injury Migraines.

Pre-injury migraines might be a risk factor for prolonged recovery after sport-related concussion (SRC). We sought to examine whether a pre-injury history of migraines is associated with worse recovery following SRC in collegiate athletes. Data were collected through a prospective concussion surveillance system in 11 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III college athletic programs between September 2014 and March 2020. Our primary independent variable, pre-injury migraines, were self-reported by the athletes. Between those with and without migraines, the outcomes of days to return-to-learn (RTL) without academic accommodations and return-to-play (RTP) were compared using Mann-Whitney U tests. Each athlete's RTL and RTP status was dichotomized (i.e., returned vs. not returned) at various time points for RTL (i.e., 7/14/21/28 days) and RTP (i.e., 14/21/28/56 days). Chi-squared tests were performed to compare the proportions of RTL and RTP status between groups. Multivariable regressions analyzed potential predictors of RTL and RTP adjusting for age, gender, prior concussions, other health conditions, and symptom severity. Of 1409 athletes with an SRC, 111 (7.9%) had a pre-injury history of migraines. Compared with those without migraines, those with migraines had longer median (interquartile range [IQR]) days to RTL (migraines = 7.0 [3.0-12.3] vs. no migraines = 5.0 [2.0-10.0], U = 53,590.5, p = 0.022). No differences were found in RTP between the two groups (migraines = 16.0 [10.0-33.0] vs. nχo migraines 15.0 [11.0-23.0], U = 38,545.0, p = 0.408). Regarding RTL, significantly lower proportions of athletes in the migraine group had fully RTL, without accommodations, at ≤14 days (77.5% vs. 85.2%, χ2 = 4.33, p = 0.037), ≤21 days (85.3% vs. 93.0%, χ2 = 7.99, p = 0.005), and ≤28 days (88.2% vs. 95.6%, χ2 = 10.60, p = 0.001). Regarding RTP, a significantly lower proportion of athletes in the migraine group RTP at ≤28 days (72.0% vs. 82.7%, χ2 = 5.40, p = 0.020) and ≤56 days (84.0% vs. 93.0%, χ2 = 8.19, p = 0.004). In a multivariable model predicting RTL that was adjusted for age, gender, acute concussion symptoms, and other health variables (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], history of mental health difficulties), pre-injury history of migraine was associated with longer RTL (ß = 0.06, p = 0.030). In a multivariable model predicting RTP, pre-injury history of migraine was not associated with RTP (ß = 0.04, p = 0.192). In collegiate athletes, pre-injury migraine history was independently associated with longer RTL but not RTP. When comparing the proportions of those with successful RTP by days, significantly lower proportions of those with migraines showed successful RTP at ≤28 days and ≤56 days. Futures studies should study the generalizability of our findings in other school levels.

Priorities for efficacy trials of gender-affirming hormone therapy with estrogen: collaborative design and results of a community survey.

PURPOSE: Treatment guidelines for gender-affirming hormone therapy with estrogen (GAHT-E) recommend specific dosing regimens based on limited data. Well-controlled efficacy trials are essential to tailoring treatment to patient goals as the guidelines recommend. The goal of this study was to take a foundational step toward designing community-centered effectiveness trials for gender-diverse individuals seeking GAHT-E. METHODS: Our team developed a cross-sectional survey based on broad clinical experience and consultation with our community advisory board. The survey included 60 items covering demographics, transition history, goals and priorities for treatment, indicators of treatment success, sexual function goals, and future research priorities. The survey was distributed during the summer of 2021, primarily through social networks designed for gender-expansive individuals seeking treatment with estrogen. RESULTS: A total of 1270 individuals completed the survey. Overall treatment goals most frequently rated "extremely important" or "very important" were the following: (1) improved satisfaction with life (81%), (2) appearing more feminine (80%), (3) appearing less masculine (77%), (4) improved mental health (76%), and (5) being seen as your true gender by others (75%). The three body characteristics most frequently rated "highest priority" or "high priority" among changes were the following: (1) facial hair (85%), (2) breast shape or size (84%), and (3) body shape (80%). The highest-rated research priority was comparing feminization with different routes of estrogen administration. CONCLUSION: The goals and experiences of individuals seeking GAHT-E are diverse. Future clinical trials of GAHT-E should be grounded in the needs and priorities of community stakeholders.

Symptom resolution following a repeat concussion within the same athlete.

INTRODUCTION: Repeat sport-related concussion (SRC) is anecdotally associated with prolonged recovery. Few studies have examined repeat concussion within the same athlete. We sought to explore differences in symptom burden and recovery outcomes in an individual athlete's initial and repeat SRC. METHODS: A retrospective within-subject cohort study of athletes aged 12-23 years diagnosed with two separate SRCs from 11/2017-10/2020 was conducted. Primary outcomes were initial symptom severity and time-to-symptom-resolution. Secondary outcomes included return-to-learn (RTL) and return-to-play (RTP) duration. RESULTS: Of 868 athletes seen, 47 athletes presented with repeat concussions. Median time between concussions was 244 days (IQR 136-395). Comparing initial to repeat concussion, no differences were observed in time-to-clinic (4.3 ± 7.3vs.3.7 ± 4.6 days, p = 0.56) or initial PCSS (26.2 ± 25.3 vs. 30.5 ± 24.1, p = 0.32). While a difference was observed in time-to-symptom resolution between initial/repeat concussion (21.2 ± 16.3 vs. 41.7 ± 86.0 days, p = 0.30), this did not reach statistical significance. No significant differences were observed in time-to-RTL (17.8 ± 60.6 vs. 6.0 ± 8.3 days, p = 0.26) and RTP (33.2 ± 44.1 vs. 29.4 ± 39.1 days, p = 0.75). Repeat concussion was not associated with symptom resolution on univariate (HR 1.64, 95% CI 0.96-2.78, p = 0.07) and multivariable (HR 0.85, 95% CI 0.49-1.46, p = 0.55) Cox regression. CONCLUSION: No significant differences in symptom duration and RTP/RTL were seen between initial/repeat concussion.

Sport-related concussion in 8- to 12-year-olds: an understudied population.

OBJECTIVE: Most studies regarding sport-related concussion (SRC) focus on high school and collegiate athletes; however, little has been published on children younger than 12 years of age. In a cohort of children aged 8-12 years with SRC, the authors sought to describe demographics, initial presentation, and recovery in this understudied population. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of children aged 8-12 years who sustained an SRC between November 2017 and April 2022 and were treated at a regional sports concussion center was conducted. Demographic information, injury characteristics, traditional Sport Concussion Assessment Tool 5 (SCAT5) and Child/Parent SCAT5 scores, and outcomes, defined as days to return to learn (RTL), symptom resolution, and return to play (RTP), were reported. Outcomes in boys and girls were compared using effect size analyses given sample size constraints. RESULTS: Forty-seven athletes were included. The mean age was 11.0 ± 0.8 years, and the majority were male (34, 72.3%). A sizable proportion of patients visited an emergency department (19, 40.4%), and many received head imaging (16, 34.0%), mostly via CT (n = 13). The most common sport for boys was football (15, 44.1%), and the most common sports for girls were soccer (4, 30.8%) and cheerleading (4, 30.8%). These athletes reported a variety of symptoms on presentation. It took a mean of 8.8 ± 10.8 days to RTL, 27.3 ± 38.3 days to reach symptom resolution, and 35.4 ± 41.9 days to RTP. When comparing boys versus girls, there appeared to be moderate differences in symptom severity scores (Cohen's d = 0.44 for SCAT5, 0.13 for Child SCAT5, and 0.38 for Parent SCAT5) and minimal differences in recovery (Cohen's d = 0.11 for RTL, n = 35; 0.22 for symptom resolution, n = 22; and 0.12 for RTP, n = 21). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of concussed athletes aged 8-12 years, a little less than half of the athletes initially presented to the emergency department, and approximately one-third received acute head imaging. Across all athletes, the mean RTL was slightly more than a week and the mean symptom resolution and RTP were both approximately 1 month; however, much of the cohort is missing recovery outcome measures. This study demonstrated a strong positive correlation between Child SCAT5 and Parent SCAT5 symptom reporting. Future efforts are needed to evaluate differences in clinical presentation and outcomes following SRC between children and older populations.

Spatial variation in avian bill size is associated with temperature extremes in a major radiation of Australian passerines.

Morphology is integral to body temperature regulation. Recent advances in understanding of thermal physiology suggest a role of the avian bill in thermoregulation. To explore the adaptive significance of bill size for thermoregulation we characterized relationships between bill size and climate extremes. Most previous studies focused on climate means, ignoring frequencies of extremes, and do not reflect thermoregulatory costs experienced over shorter time scales. Using 79 species (9847 museum specimens), we explore how bill size variation is associated with temperature extremes in a large and diverse radiation of Australasian birds, Meliphagides, testing a series of predictions. Overall, across the continent, bill size variation was associated with both climate extremes and means and was most strongly associated with winter temperatures; associations at the level of climate zones differed from continent-wide associations and were complex, yet consistent with physiology and a thermoregulatory role for avian bills. Responses to high summer temperatures were nonlinear suggesting they may be difficult to detect in large-scale continental analyses using previous methodologies. We provide strong evidence that climate extremes have contributed to the evolution of bill morphology in relation to thermoregulation and show the importance of including extremes to understand fine-scale trait variation across space.

Examining the New Consensus Criteria for Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome in Community-Dwelling Older Adults.

In 2021, an expert panel of clinician-scientists published the first consensus research diagnostic criteria for traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES), a clinical condition thought to be associated with chronic traumatic encephalopathy neuropathological change. This study evaluated the TES criteria in older adults and assessed associations between TES criteria and a history of repetitive head impacts. This cross-sectional, survey-based study examined the symptoms of TES, previous repetitive head impacts, and a variety of current health difficulties. To meet symptom criteria for TES, participants had to report progressive changes with memory, executive functioning, and/or neurobehavioral dysregulation. To meet the criterion for substantial exposure to repetitive head impacts via contact sports, participants reported at least 5 years of contact sport exposure (with 2+ years in high school or beyond). A sample of 507 older adults (mean age = 70.0 years, 65% women) completed the survey and 26.2% endorsed having one or more of the progressive core clinical features of TES. Those who had a significant history of contact sport exposure were not significantly more likely to meet TES criteria compared with those who did not (31.3% vs. 25.3%, p = 0.46). In a binary logistic regression predicting TES status, current depression or anxiety (odds ratio [OR] = 12.55; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 4.43-35.51), history of psychiatric disorders (OR = 2.07, 95% CI = 1.22-3.49), male sex (OR = 1.87), and sleep problems (OR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.01-2.91) were associated with meeting TES criteria. The sport exposure criterion, age, and current pain were not significantly associated with TES status (ps > 0.05). A significant minority of participants with no history of neurotrauma endorsed symptoms consistent with TES (22.0% of men and 19.8% of women). Nearly 80% of neurotrauma naïve participants with clinically significant anxiety/depression met criteria for TES. In summary, approximately one in four older adults met the symptom criteria for TES, many of whom had no history of repetitive neurotrauma. Mental health problems and sleep issues were associated with TES, whereas having a history of repetitive head impacts in contact sports was not. These data suggest that the new consensus diagnostic criteria for TES may have low specificity and may carry a higher risk of misdiagnosing those with other physical and mental health conditions as having TES.

Do Sport-Related Concussions Later in the Season Take Longer to Recover From?

OBJECTIVE: In a cohort of high-school football athletes with sport-related concussion (SRC), we sought to investigate the role of seasonality, defined as time of injury during a season, on recovery. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Regional sport concussion center. PARTICIPANTS: High-school football athletes ages 14 to 19 -years old who sustained an SRC from 11, 2017 to 04, 2022. INTERVENTION: Athletes were divided into 3 groups based on seasonality: early, middle, and late season. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcomes were initial Post-Concussion Symptom Scale score and recovery, as defined by time to return-to-learn (RTL), symptom resolution, and return-to-play (RTP). Descriptive statistics, analysis-of-variance, t tests, and multivariable regressions were performed. RESULTS: Of our cohort of 273 high-school football players who sustained an SRC, 97 (35.5%) sustained an SRC during early season, 107 (39.2%) during middle season, and 69 (25.3%) during late season. Compared with late-season concussions, early-season concussions took less days to symptom resolution (early = 11.5 ± 12.9 vs late = 25.5 ± 27.0, P = 0.03), but no differences were found in days to RTL (early = 5.3 ± 4.8 vs late = 7.2 ± 15.8, P = 0.51) and RTP (early = 13.5 ± 11.8 vs late = 23.0 ± 22.8, P = 0.08). Seasonality was not a significant predictor for any recovery metric in multivariable regressions. CONCLUSION: Sport-related concussions occurring in the early third of the season took significantly less time to symptom resolution than those occurring in the later third of the season; however, this was not statistically significant in multivariable analyses. No association was observed between seasonality and time to RTL and RTP. A trend of worse recovery with concussions later in the season may be present.

Acute psychological symptom profiles in high school football players following sport-related concussion.

OBJECTIVE: In a cohort of high school football athletes, the authors sought to 1) describe the proportion of those with acute psychological symptoms postconcussion, 2) determine predictors of more acute psychological symptoms postconcussion, and 3) determine if acute psychological symptoms impact recovery. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of high school football athletes (14-18 years of age) who sustained a sport-related concussion between November 2017 and April 2022 and presented to a multidisciplinary concussion center was performed. Based on their Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) scores at the initial clinic visit, their total psychological symptom cluster score was calculated by summing their scores for the four affective symptoms (irritability, sadness, nervousness, and feeling more emotional). The psychological symptom ratio was defined as the ratio of the psychological symptom cluster score to the total initial PCSS score. Primary outcomes included time to return to learn (RTL), symptom resolution, and return to play (RTP). Uni- and multivariable regression analyses were performed controlling for demographic factors, learning disabilities, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and personal and/or family history of psychological diagnoses and migraine. RESULTS: A total of 195 male football players (mean age 16.2 ± 1.2 years) were included in the study. About one-third of the sample (n = 70, 35.9%) reported at least one psychological symptom. Of these 70 athletes, their psychological symptom scores were 1 (10.3%), 2 (7.7%), and ≥ 3 (17.9%). Irritability was the most endorsed psychological symptom (25.1%), followed by nervousness (15.9%), feeling more emotional (12.8%), and sadness (11.8%). The multivariable regression model showed that a positive psychological history (B = 2.66, 95% CI 0.74-4.58, p = 0.007) and family psychological history (B = 2.43, 95% CI 0.98-3.88, p = 0.001) were significant predictors of a higher psychological symptom cluster score. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed that a higher psychological symptom cluster score was associated with a longer time to RTP (B = 1.22, 95% CI 0.17-2.264, p = 0.023) but not with time to symptom resolution or RTL. The psychological symptom ratio was not a significant predictor. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of male football players, 36% reported at least one psychological symptom, with irritability being most commonly reported. Athletes with a personal and/or family history of psychological disorders experienced more acute psychological symptoms following a sport-related concussion. A higher psychological symptom cluster score was associated with delayed time to RTP but not time to RTL or symptom resolution.

Do academic accommodations help students recover following sport-related concussion? A retrospective study of 96 youth athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Many schools utilize academic accommodations to help athletes return-to-learn after sport-related concussion, yet little is known about the impact of accommodations on recovery. In a cohort of adolescent athletes with sport-related concussion, the authors sought to 1) describe academic accommodations, 2) determine predictors of receiving accommodations, and 3) determine how accommodations influenced recovery, as defined by days to return-to-learn, symptom resolution, and return-to-play. METHODS: A retrospective survey study was undertaken that included all athletes between the ages of 12 and 24 years who were seen at a regional sport-related concussion center from April 1, 2020, to April 1, 2022. Demographic characteristics, past medical history, injury characteristics, school-related factors, and recovery were collected via a telephone-based survey and from medical charts. The independent variable was the use of academic accommodations by students. The outcome variables included days to return-to-learn, symptom resolution, and return-to-play. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Of 300 athletes contacted, 96 consented to participate in this study (mean age ± SD 16.6 ± 2.6 years, 60.4% male). The mean return-to-learn was 9.0 ± 13.2 days. In total, 63.5% of athletes received some kind of school accommodation. The most common accommodations included extra time on tests (46/96 [47.9%] athletes) and extra time for assignments (43/96 [44.8%]), whereas preferential seating in class (0/96 [0.0%]) and reduced workloads (4/96 [4.2%]) were the least commonly used accommodations. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that White race (OR 0.17, 95% CI 0.02-0.71, p = 0.03) and higher initial Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS) score (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.07, p = 0.02) were predictive of receiving accommodations. Univariable models showed that receiving accommodations was not predictive of return-to-learn (ß = 4.67, 95% CI -0.92 to 10.25, p = 0.10), symptom resolution (ß = 24.71, 95% CI -17.41 to 66.83, p = 0.26), or return-to-play (ß = 13.35, 95% CI -14.56 to 41.27, p = 0.35). Regarding other predictors of each outcome, several factors emerged irrespective of accommodations. Multivariable analysis revealed that longer time to return-to-learn was associated with a history of psychiatric illness (ß = 8.00, 95% CI 1.71-14.29, p = 0.02) and initial PCSS score (ß = 0.14, 95% CI 0.06-0.23, p < 0.01). Finally, predictors of days to return-to-play included school personnel who were knowledgeable of concussion (ß = -5.07, 95% CI -9.93 to -0.21, p = 0.04) and higher initial PCSS score (ß = 0.67, 95% CI 0.04-1.29, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: The most common accommodation was extra time on tests/assignments, whereas reduced workload was the least common. White race and greater initial PCSS score were associated with receiving accommodations. Receiving accommodations did not significantly impact days to return-to-learn, symptom resolution, or return-to-play.

Risk of Two Sport-Related Concussions in the Same Year: Is the Second Concussion Worse?

OBJECTIVES: 1) Evaluate the frequency of same-year, repeat concussions; (2) assess predictors of sustaining a repeat concussion; and (3) compare outcomes of athletes with repeat concussions with athletes with single concussion. DESIGN: A retrospective, case-control study. SETTING: Regional sports concussion center. PATIENTS: Adolescents sustaining a sport-related concussions (SRC) from November 2017 to October 2020. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Participants were dichotomized into 2 groups: (1) athletes with a single concussion; and (2) athletes with repeat concussions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Between group and within group analyses were completed to look for differences in demographics, personal and family history, concussion history, and recovery metrics between the 2 groups. RESULTS: Of 834 athletes with an SRC, 56 (6.7%) sustained a repeat concussion and 778 (93.3%) had a single concussion. Between group: Personal history of migraines (19.6% vs 9.5%, χ 2 = 5.795, P = 0.02), family history of migraines (37.5% vs 24.5%, χ 2 = 4.621, P = 0.03), and family history of psychiatric disorders (25% vs 13.1%, χ 2 = 6.224, P = 0.01) were significant predictors of sustaining a repeat concussion. Within group: Among those with a repeat concussion, initial symptom severity was greater (Z = -2.422; P = 0.02) during the repeat concussion and amnesia was more common (χ 2 = 4.775, P = 0.03) after the initial concussion. CONCLUSIONS: In a single-center study of 834 athletes, 6.7% suffered a same-year, repeat concussion. Risk factors included personal/family migraine history and family psychiatric history. For athletes with repeat concussions, initial symptom score was higher after the second concussion, yet amnesia was more common after the initial concussion.

Does recovery after sport-related concussion vary by time point in a season? A multi-sport investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Seasonality, or the specific point in time within a season in which the injury occurs, may have an impact on the recovery following sport-related concussions (SRCs). In a cohort of high school athletes across multiple sports, the authors sought to investigate the impact of seasonality on 1) concussion frequency, 2) acute symptom presentation (initial Post-Concussion Symptom Scale [PCSS] score), and 3) recovery outcomes, including the time to return to learn (RTL), symptom resolution (SR), and return to play (RTP). METHODS: A retrospective, single-institution, cohort study was conducted with adolescent athletes aged 14-19 years who sustained an SRC between November 2017 and April 2022 and presented to a multidisciplinary specialty concussion clinic. The time from first practice to the end of the regular season was evenly trichotomized into early, middle, and late season. Teams that participated in the playoffs were included in a subanalysis. One-way ANOVA and independent t-tests were used to compare PCSS scores, RTL, SR, and RTP across seasonality. Univariable and multivariable regressions were used to determine predictors for recovery, defined as total days from initial visit to each outcome. RESULTS: Of the 1504 eligible athletes, 620 high school athletes met inclusion criteria; 491 (79.2%) sustained a concussion during the regular season with 73 (14.9%), 136 (27.7%), and 282 (57.4%) concussions occurring in the early, middle, and late seasons, respectively. No differences were seen for initial PCSS score, RTL, SR, or RTP across early-, middle-, and late-season concussions. The initial PCSS score was significantly higher for playoff compared with regular-season concussions (playoffs: 33.4 ± 27.5; regular season: 23.3 ± 22.8; t = -1.979, p = 0.048). A subanalysis of playoff concussions (n = 24) compared with regular-season concussions showed that concussion in the playoffs was associated with a higher initial PCSS score in univariable (ß = 0.093, p = 0.048) and multivariable (ß = 0.112, p = 0.014) analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of concussions occurred during the late-season period. No difference in acute symptoms or recovery outcomes was seen when comparing the three regular season time points. Playoff concussions were associated with significantly increased symptom scores compared with nonplayoff concussions.

Sex Differences in Resource Allocation and Access to Care After Sport-Related Concussion.

CONTEXT: Following sport-related concussions (SRC), immediate access to a certified athletic trainer (ATC) is important to ensure proper treatment. However, resource allocation and coverage may differ between male/female youth sports. OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare resource allocation between male/female sports in the following areas: 1) rates of immediate on-field evaluation by an ATC at the time of injury, 2) time to general healthcare presentation, and 3) time to SRC clinic presentation. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Regional sports concussion center. PATIENTS: Athletes ages 14-19 who presented to a regional sports concussion center from 11/2017-04/2022 was conducted. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary exposure of interest was sex (male/female). The primary outcome was immediate on-field evaluation by an ATC (yes/no). Secondary outcomes included time to general healthcare and SRC clinic presentation. Descriptive statistics, chisquared analyses, and linear regressions were performed. Covariates included age, history of prior concussions, and statistically significant demographics. RESULTS: A total of 832 patients with SRC were included (age 16.2±1.2, 66.5% male). Female athletes had lower rates of ADHD (X2=10.404, p=.001) and higher rates of anxiety/depression (X2=12.891, p< 0.001) compared to male athletes. Average time to presentation to general healthcare and SRC clinic did not differ between males/females, but ATC on-field evaluation occurred more in male (40.3%) than female (32.3%) athletes (X2=8.677, p=.013). Multivariable linear regression foun 24 d that ATC on-field evaluation was a significant predictor of time to general healthcare presentation (ß=-0.085, p=.015) but not SRC clinic presentation (ß=-0.055, p=.099). History of prior concussions was a significant predictor of time to initial healthcare contact (ß=0.083, p=.018). History of anxiety/depression (ß=0.136, p<.001) and initial evaluation by emergency department (ED)/urgent care (ß= 0.305, p<.001) were significant predictors of delayed time to SRC clinic presentation. CONCLUSIONS: Among 832 concussed youth athletes, female athletes were evaluated less frequently by an ATC immediately after injury. Furthermore, not being evaluated by an ATC on field was significantly associated with longer time to healthcare presentation. Future investigations should elucidate resource equity among male and female athletes.