Validity of the bi-axial dependence concept: a test in the US general population.

According to the "bi-axial" concept of alcohol dependence, the Alcohol Dependence Syndrome (ADS) constitutes an axis or dimension of alcohol difficulties, while other alcohol-related problems (social, legal, etc.) constitute one or more separate dimensions. The validity of the bi-axial distinction was investigated in a stratified probability sample of 3212 US current drinkers who were interviewed in their households. Indicators of the Alcohol Dependence Syndrome and potentially distinct alcohol-related problems were covered in a structured interview administered by carefully trained interviewers. This interview provided extensive coverage of drinking patterns and problems. Aspects of the ADS covered included narrowing, salience, tolerance, withdrawal, withdrawal relief/avoidance and compulsion/control. Other alcohol problems included difficulties with work, health, the law, general social difficulties and problems in marriage/home life. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were used to determine whether a single factor (dimension) or two or more factors fit the data best. Using all methods, we found that one general factor explained the structure of the data better than a two-factor model or other models for males, females, blacks and whites. Thus, the utility of this approach to distinguishing between types of alcohol problems was challenged, raising some questions about abuse/dependence distinctions in various nomenclatures.

Factor analysis of ICD-10 symptom items in the 1988 National Health Interview Survey on Alcohol Dependence.

The present paper analyzes data from the 1988 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS88) of US adults. This general population survey is important in that it is the largest survey to date that collects detailed information on alcohol consumption and alcohol problems. The NHIS88 is a multi-stage complex sample household study with a sample size of about 44,000 adults of which about 20,000 reported that they were current drinkers. Symptom items were used for classification of individuals into categories of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence based on the DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, and ICD-10 classification. The present analyses are based on 20 items corresponding to the ICD-10 classification, the elements of which are closely related to the Edwards-Gross alcohol dependence syndrome concepts. A single dimension corresponding to alcohol problems in general accounted for much of the correlations among these items, but additional dimensions of interest were also identified. Of the ICD-10 elements only Impaired Control, Tolerance, and Withdrawal could be identified as separate dimensions.

Self-focused attention, gender, gender role, and vulnerability to negative affect.

Research has independently shown that both gender and self-focused attention are linked to depression. In this article, we report a series of studies investigating the relation between these variables. Using a standard self-focusing manipulation, Study 1 suggested that women evidence a greater propensity to self-focus than men. We replicated these findings in Study 2. In Study 3, we conducted an experiment to determine if sex role in conjunction with experimentally increased self-focused attention would lead to more emotional distress after a negative event had occurred. Results suggested that feminine individuals who received a self-focusing manipulation responded with greater levels of self-focused attention and negative affect than did any other group. We interpreted findings in terms of a tendency to self-focus that might prime feminine people to experience depression, or alternately, as a lack of self-focusing that may insulate masculine individuals from the experience of depression.