Relationships among egg characteristics, chick measurements, and early growth traits in ten broiler breeder strains.

This study evaluated egg traits, yolk utilization, chick conformation, and early growth rate in 10 broiler breeder strains. The strains included pure-, specialized- and commercial-line products. The 210 eggs/strain were weighed and randomly designated to 1 of 3 experimental determinations: 8 eggs for measurement of eggshell conductance, 52 eggs for determination of egg characteristics, and 150 eggs for incubation and chick traits. Egg characteristics included egg weight, specific gravity, yolk weight, albumen weight, albumen height, eggshell weight, and eggshell thickness. Chick traits included navel condition, hock color, chick length, shank length, and abdomen score by manual palpation. At hatch, half the birds per strain were dissected to assess the weight of the yolk sac, heart, liver, and breast muscle. The remaining chicks were randomly distributed into 4 rearing pens for a 14-d assessment of growth rate. There was a 3-g range in egg weight among the strains. Eggs from a pure line had the greatest amount of yolk (22.6 g), with yolk weight ranging to a low of 20.9 g in 2 other strains. The male line strain and 2 female line strains had the highest hatching weights (46.3, 46.5, and 45.4 g, respectively), whereas a commercial strain had the lowest hatching weight (43.1 g). Egg size affected chick weight more than did yolk size. The residual yolk mass at hatch ranged from 5.50 g (in the male line) to 3.70 g in the commercial strains. Residual yolk mass accounted for approximately 10 to 14% of chick BW at hatch. The abdominal palpation score correlated with actual hatch residual yolk weight (r = 0.50; P < 0.0001). At hatch, differences in breast muscle and internal organ weight were present. Shank length at hatch correlated more strongly with 14-d BW (r = 0.39; P < 0.0001) than did hatch weight and 14-d BW (r = 0.35; P < 0.0001). The results of this trial demonstrated significant strain variation in internal organ weight, residual yolk sac mass, and chick carcass reserves, which, when added together, resulted in observable differences in chick weights across strains.

Relationship between chick conformation and quality measures with early growth traits in males of eight selected pure or commercial broiler breeder strains.

Current commercial broiler products are derived from the crosses of various strains at the primary breeder level. This study investigated chick development, yolk utilization, and early growth rate of males from 8 broiler breeder strains. These strains were a combination of both specialized and commercial-line products. At hatch, 110 male chicks per strain were weighed and wing-banded, and chick quality was assessed. Traits included navel condition, hock color, chick length, shank length, and abdomen score by abdominal palpation (to evaluate residual yolk content on live chicks). At hatch, 50 chicks per strain were dissected to assess breast muscling and residual yolk weight. At 2 wk of age, 50 chicks per strain were dissected to characterize changes in weight, conformation, fleshing, and residual yolk content. Chick weight at hatch varied from 40.8 g in a heavily growth-selected line to a low of 36.9 g in a commercial strain. The mass of residual yolk at hatch ranged from 0.8 to 10.6 g across all chicks dissected at hatch. A heavily breast-selected pure-line strain had 5.8 g of residual yolk in contrast to the commercial strain that had only 3.0 g. Although there were no significant strain differences in abdomen score, this score correlated with dissected residual yolk weight (r = 0.50). Shank length and chick body length at hatch correlated more strongly with BW on d 14 than did hatch weight. This information stresses the importance of evaluating several characteristics at hatch to better quantify early chick quality.

Comparison of growth patterns of subcutaneous fat tissue in Mexican and Polish with US and Peruvian populations.

The development of subcutaneous fat tissue in the US was found to follow the following stages: preschool loss, prepubertal gain, adolescent loss, stabilization, adult gain, and after top fatness, age loss. 1208 subjects 2-80 years old were studied in Maya a mixed population from Merida and Progreso (Yucatan, Mexico) measuring two fatfolds. A population of 7924 from Polish towns and villages was chosen measuring 10 fatfolds. The same pattern of fatfolds growth was found in different ethnic groups, except level of thickness and age at turning points. Adolescent loss is characteristic only for boys, and stabilization for girls. The pattern was clearly expressed in females but was only slightly marked in Yucatan males and in Poles. Data was compared for triceps fatfold, and also for the summation of several fatfolds, sometimes different in the studied populations (from 2 to 10 sites was measured). Preschool loss was mainly found at 2-5 years of age, prepubertal gain at 7-10 years, adolescent loss in boys at 11-15 years, stabilization in girls at 15-20 years, adult gain at 17-45 years, top fatness in various populations occurred between 45 and 55 years of age and next age loss was observed. Most scanty fat tissue occurred in the Peru Nunoa population, next in the Poles and white and black Americans, fat tissues became more abundant in the Mexican American and Puerto Rican, and was most abundant in the Yucatecan population. US black females have thicker fatfold than white, but white males thicker than black. Differences in amount of fat tissue are probably related to nutritional levels (quantity) and habits (quality).

Monitoring program of biological status of human populations related to environmental changes.

The paper aims at a synthesis of research carried out hitherto which might serve to evaluate the diagnostic value of human biological traits related to natural, economic and socio-cultural properties of the environment. The development of a monitoring program is the object of research of the Department of Human Ecology, the Polish Academy of Sciences, in the years 1986-1990 in Poland, and also of recommendations of the IUAES Human Ecology Commission for the last decade of the 20th century in various countries over the world. Generally, the stages of ontogenesis that are appropriate for monitoring are those which involve an intense proliferation of cells and a rapid growth. The appropriate subjects are the more ecosensitive individuals, that is the heterozygous ones as well as men. The more ecosensitive traits are those developed after birth in over 50 per cent of their adult value. Traits of the highest diagnostic (discriminant) value with respect to environmental conditions were selected. The results are based on the analysis of: 35 somatic traits in 1034 newborns from Bialystok and Zambrów in relation to the traits of their families and parents; 21 somatic traits in 2461 of 11 year-old children from Lublin; 40 somatic, physiological and psychomotor traits in 1186 children, 6-19 years old from Poland; 26 morphological and physiological traits in 4771 subjects of 5-90 years of age in Poland; 9 somatic and 17 motor traits in 127,489 children, 7-19 years old, in relation to economic and demographic conditions in 98 regions of Poland; and 27 somatic, physiological and psychomotor traits in children and their parents from the ages of 3-80 years, from 3995 families from Poland. The age particularly important to the study includes: foetal growth effects recorded as newborn status, child development from about half a year (since weaning) to about 3 years of age, development at the early period of puberty, the period at adolescence, age at the peak value (maximal size, best results) of the main morphological and functional traits (usually between the age of 12 and 30), and finally, the rate of involution of these main traits in older age. For the "minimum program" (for public health and environmental conservation services) among somatic traits, 3 were selected for a minimum program: stature, Kaup index, and cephalic index. Among physiological traits, 2 were selected: forced respiratory volume per second and hemoglobin concentration. Among motor traits, 3 were selected for the minimum program: distant movement accuracy, grip strength, and standing long jump.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Family characteristics and offspring growth in various countries. II. Stature of offsprings in various families in Japan and Korea.

The stature of 1219 offspring was examined in 578 families in Japan, and of 672 offspring in 265 families in Republic of Korea. Several traits of parents were investigated, on which using factor analysis four latent factors were extracted. In Japan they consisted of parent's age at child birth (F1), culture level and income (F2), family and apartment size (F3), and genetic factor (F4). The same factors were identified in Korea, but the first two in reverse order. The value of each factor was coded as one when below the median and as 2 when above the median. Using this code, 16 family types were distinguished ranging from 1111 to 2222. The stature of offspring was recalculated in age-independent T-scores. In Japan, family types "maximizing" the stature of offspring were 1122 for boys and 1222 for girls, whereas in Korea 1222 for both sexes, opposite were "minimizing". In the rich populations representing the civilization of the Far East, the factors promoting tall stature of offspring included the low culture-income factor and large family, thus the factors promoting short stature in poor Polish populations belonging to the Western civilization. It is not clear whether this could have been related to the economic status or to different civilization systems.

Seasonal rhythm of menarche as a sensitive index of living conditions.

The paper is focused on the seasonal pattern of birth and occurrence of menarche in different populations. The material collected in 1988/89 consists of 522 girls and their 249 mothers from schools of Merida, and of 135 girls and their 66 mothers from Progreso (Yucatan, Mexico). Occurrence of a biorhythm due to which girls matured in the month of their birth more frequently than by chance, was found. A shift of the maturation to an earlier or later month is caused by stress acceleration up or delaying maturation. Seasonal differences in menarche occur in different climates, but they depend on seasonal differences in the life style, occupation, and the like, rather than on climate itself. Typically menarche occurs in the extreme periods in terms of climate, diet, hard work, stress, etc., that is, in summer and/or in winter. The age of mother's maturation is correlated with that of daughter's. Month of daughter's maturation is correlated with that of mother's. Correlation exists between the month of woman's birth and the month of her maturation. No correlation exists between the month of daughter's birth and that of mother's, and between the month of daughter's maturation and the month of mother's birth.

Family characteristics and offspring growth in various countries. III. Regression of offspring's stature in relation to parent's and family's factors in Japan and Korea.

1219 offspring 2-48 years old were examined in 578 Japanese and in 672 Korean families. To obtain age-independent values, we used 100-point T-scores. A multiple regression analysis, shows that the (tall) stature of Japanese offspring dependent on the genetic factor (tall stature of parents) in about 13%, on (large) family and apartment size in 0.4-1.5%, for sons also on (good) education and income of parents in 0.72%, and for daughters on (young) age of parents at child birth. In Korea, the (tall) stature of offspring was significantly related to the genetic factor (tall parents), which explained 1.8% of the variance for sons and 13% for daughters, and also to the (large) family apartment size, which explained 2.6% of the variance for sons and 0.84% for daughters. These results show in a different light the results obtained from the analysis of family types, and they provide evidence for the importance of the analysis of sets of traits in the form of family types, going beyond the importance of other multivariate techniques.

Family characteristics and offspring growth in various countries. I. Frequency of various family types in Bulgaria, Japan, Korea, Mexico and Poland.

9936 families were analyzed from Bulgaria, Japan, Korea, Mexico, and Poland. A factor analysis revealed four factors: culture (F1), income (F2), genetics (F3), and family and apartment size (F4). Family types we coded as 1 if below the median and 2 if above the median. The most frequent types were represented by 1122, 2221, and 2211 (frequency 8.7-8.0%), and the least frequent by 1221 and 2111 (frequency 4.2-4.3%). Some similarity with respect to family types were found between populations: from Polish regions with heavy industry and seaside regions; from Polish towns under industrialization and from Mexico; from the Polish medium-size town of Lublin and Bulgarian towns; from Polish villages; from Polish mountain areas and north-eastern towns; from Korea; from Japan; from Polish cities.

Biodemographic and sociocultural factors in two generations of families from six Polish rural and urban populations.

There were investigated 6967 families from 6 rural regions, under industrialization, and industrialized urban regions. In the grandparents generation there were taken into account 10 traits (an education level, a mating radius, and a stature) and in parents generation 17 traits (the mentioned-above ones and a number of family members, a flat size, incomes, an employees No., a life mode, smoking etc. Numerical characteristics of traits have been calculated jointly and separately in six populations, matrices of correlation have been constructed and moreover factorial analysis have been carried out, as a result of which 8 rotated factors have been obtained. The highest cultural mobility (increase in the level of education) from generation to generation occurs in the population of textile industry town Lódz. The highest improvement of biological status, the increase in mating radius and high incomes are characteristic for this regions, too. On the other side are villages with low culture mobility (not large increase in education level), slight improvement of biological status, almost no migrations, overcrowded flats and low income per family member. The relations between pairs of traits appear to vary largely in several populations. Generally is a high correlation between the education level of the same family members in both generations. The has been stated negative correlation between grandfather stature both of the mother and the father lines, with occurring of positive assortative mating in the couples of two generations. In both investigated generations there is the positive assortative mating, but the negative correlation in the stature between grandfathers of the mother and the father lines. The grandparents education level is correlated with their and their offsprings stature. The duration of holidays is one of the best (closely correlated with others) indicators of life mode, and partially of a given family living conditions, too. 8 hidden factors have been separated: a consciousness, mode of life, a number of family members, a genetic factor (stature), migrations, living conditions, incomes. This 8 factors have different ranks (evaluated as a position in sequence expressing in % the share in being explained variance) in six investigated rural and urban populations, explaining together 54-55% of the total variance of analyzed family traits. The consciousness occurs generally as a first factor. As far, as the mode of life is concerned, the rank of its factor is less in villages than in towns, and reciprocally the ranks of such factors as a number of family members, migrations and living conditions, are greater in villages than in towns.

Assortative mating in somatic traits and its consequences.

The problem of assortative mating embraces non-random mating of spouses. However, it is often discussed together with its consequences, which results from the fact that when we study similarities between spouses at various stages of their acquaintance and/or living together we must take into consideration not only the criteria of mating but also the consequences like, for instance, "resembling" (synchronous changes in husband and wife) and perhaps compensation of one's traits. This problem has not been sufficiently examined so far and further studies are necessary (Wolaánski 1970c, Nikityuk and Filipov 1975, Kasprzak and Wolanski 1977, Thiessen and Gregg 1980, James 1989). The problem of assortative mating involves both the reasons principally genetic-evolutionary problems (Pearson 1896, Wolanski and Siniarska 1983, 1984)--and the consequences as well, like, for instance homosis, that is transmitting to the offspring similar genes from defined loci, and heterosis, that is transmitting the different genes. Thus problem constitutes genetic foundations of auxology. Also an ecological problem is added, namely a synchronous resemble changes of spouses connected with similar living conditions and life style. Assortative mating seems to be a simple problem but in fact it is a scientific problem in which genetic, ecological and auxological approaches are combined. Below we will discuss assortative mating from these angles with reference to some anthropological traits. As a matter of fact, assortative mating is concerned with such a fundamental problem in the biomedical and social sciences as development the traits of the offspring (organism level) and of the whole future generations (population level). This is a problem of great importance by no means theoretical only. In our studies the main emphasis has been on spouses similarities in the morphological, physiological and psychomotor traits and also on some changes in the successive generations (which was connected with the lasting of marriage before the moment of investigations). The variations of traits of the populations were also taken into consideration as well as the effects of assortative mating of spouses on the development of their children. The above mentioned problems will constitute the contents of the present chapter. Studies on assortative mating have had a long tradition in Poland and most probably are one of the earliest in the world, apart from those conducted by Pearson (1896) in Great Britain and the Anonymous ones from 1903. This pertains mostly to B. Rosinski's (1923, 1925, 1926, 1929) investigations conducted in Poland in 1918 and on Polish immigrants to Brazil in 1931 and USA in 1929-30 (Stolyhwo 1931, Rosinski 1934).

Regression of body build and motor fitness in 7-19-year-old Polish youth on energy use and demographic properties of regions.

A total of 65487 girls and 62002 boys aged from 7 to 19 years were examined in towns and villages all over Poland. Coefficients of multiple regression and percentage of explained variation in body build and motor fitness (somatic-fitness traits) of youth were calculated in relation to the variation in economic activity (as measured by electric energy use) and in demographic properties of 98 regions of Poland (urban and rural areas of 49 provinces separately). Calculations were made separately for girls 7-8, 9-10, 14-15, and 18-19 years old and for boys 7-8, 11-12, 16-17, and 18-19 years old, also for increases between these age classes in towns and villages separately. This is an extension of the analysis based on the correlation of these traits in 9.5-year-old girls and 11.5-year-old boys (Wolanski et al. 1990). The regression of somatic-fitness traits on some demographic and economic properties of regions (regional factors) is most significant for rural boys, a little less significant for rural girls, and it is weakest for urban boys. The largest differences in the regression of somatic-fitness traits on regional factors between age classes were noted for rural girls, moderate for urban youth, and the smallest for rural boys. Dependence of somatic-fitness traits on regional factors increased with age. It was most clearly expressed in urban boys, and least clear in rural girls. But the strongest relationships at an age of 18 years occurred only in towns (for both sexes), whereas at an age of 9 years for rural girls and at an age of 16 years for rural boys. The analyzed traits of body build and physical fitness in youth were most strongly related to the percentage of urban population in a region, especially for urban and rural boys and rural girls. In urban girls, the most important factor was migration rate. Generally, the second most important factor influencing somatic-motor traits was electric energy use per 100 km2. The strongest effect of regional factors on motor-fitness traits was recorded for runs, standing long jump, and sit-ups, whereas running broad jump (normalized on stature) and trunk flexibility were least affected. Among body build traits, Kaup index and chest circumference were most affected, whereas arm circumference (normalized on stature twice stronger), and chest flexibility were least influenced. For example, the strongest relationship was noted between Kaup index (35.1%) in 9.5-year-old girls and regional infant death rate.

Sexual dimorphism in newborns and adults.

A total of 1034 newborns were used to analyze sexual dimorphism with respect to 37 somatic traits and ratios between them, describing body shape. Arithmetic means and standard deviations were calculated for both sexes. Similarly, sexual dimorphism of adults was analyzed. Sexual differences in newborns were statistically significant for most measurements but only for some body proportions (relative chest size, foot shape, relative lower extremity length, and the ratio of head to chest circumference). The highest degree of sexual dimorphism in newborns was shown by the index standardized on the mean (dsex/mean) of such traits as the thickness of subcutaneous fat tissue on the thigh, subscapular fat tissue and fat tissue on the 10th rib, body weight, hand breadth, and relative chest size (Marty index). A moderate dimorphism was found for the length of upper extremities, forearm with the hand, head with the neck, hand and trunk, the size of the nose and foot, the breadth of hips and mandible, and the upper-face height. A low dimorphism was found for body length, circumference and breadth of head, face diameter, chest circumference, foot shape, relative length of lower extremities, and proportion between head and chest circumferences. Sexual differences (dsex/mean) for all the somatic traits examined in adults were statistically significant. The dimorphism of all the traits (except hip breadth) was higher in adults than in newborns. The highest increase in sexual dimorphism was noted for chest breadth (ca 55 times), then for chest depth (ca 17 times), thickness of subcutaneous fat tissue on arm (ca. 17 times), and the length of lower extremities (ca 15 times). Sexual differences in proportions (shape) of the body were also better pronounced in adults than in newborns. Sexual dimorphism standardized for dispersion (dsex/SD) in newborns differed from that in adults with respect to the degree of its expression and the sequence of the traits showing the highest and the lowest levels of dimorphism. This results from intra-group variation of different traits.

The effect of culture and genotype on motor development of parents and their children.

The study is based on the observation of 3995 individuals aged from 3 to over 80 years from five habitat types of Poland, ranging from agricultural villages to a large industrial city. We used a set of motor tests described elsewhere and examining the static and explosive muscular strength, agility, coordination and persistent fitness. The study objects were the generations of parents and their children (because of age-dependent differences, the traits of the latter were expressed in T-scores). Factor analysis with rotation Varimax was used to examine family traits. Four latent factors characterizing families were identified. Factor 1 (F1) was related with culture (consciousness). It explained 26% of the variance. F2 described living conditions and explained 22% of the variance. F3 (maternal-genetic) explained 12% of the variance, and factor 4 (father's genetic factor) explained 11% of the variance. These factors have a stronger effect on the motor traits of parents than on those of their children. The two generations were more similar with respect to such traits as the static strength, flexibility, spatial orientation and persistence. They were little similar with respect to explosive power and running agility. A moderate similarity occurred for throw accuracy and body balance. The most important factor in the parental generation is the consciousness (culture level) co-occurring with fitness (only for throw accuracy these were living conditions). The most important factors in the descendant generation were usually beyond the examined family traits. The present results show that in parallel to genetic and maternal factors also cultural factors related to traditional customs and social practices determine motor traits of children.

Biological traits of spouses: socio-cultural and economic context in the urban and rural environments.

The study covered 89 typical rural families and 161 typical urban families in a few of Polish regions, determining 39 features (morphological, physiological and psychomotor, morbidity, level of education, income and living conditions as well as fertility) of spouses and family. The families compared thus from the years of the best economic conditions (1975-1976) of post-war Poland are different from those described today for other periods and populations. Differences in the majority of somatic features, which are positive indices of health, are insignificant. Some of them, are better developed in urban populations (stronger physique, better nutritional status, lower blood pressure, better respiratory indices), others--in rural populations (greater muscle strength in women, shorter time of reaction). Urban population has been seen to have a higher morbidity than the people of rural areas. Differences in such a constant features as the shape of head point at the process of directional migration from villages of brachycephalic people. This shape of head is probably linked with improper nutrition (deficit of mineral components etc.).

Family and couple properties, and placenta weight in the populations of Bialystok and Zambrów, Poland.

The purpose of this study was an analysis of relationships between the traits of families and parents, also recognition of factors determining family properties, including factors responsible for placenta weight. Correlation matrix was used to find relationships among traits, and factor analysis with rotation of the Varimax type was used to identify factors. A total of 795 women were examined, including their placenta and family traits, in the regions of Bialystok and Zambrów, in 1977-1978. A correlation matrix of 23 traits of the family and couple, and the weight of placenta during a given pregnancy, was analyzed. A total of 8 factors were discerned, explaining 61.3% of the total variation of the traits. Factor 1 (F1) represented the culture (consciousness) of the family and morbidity of the mother (15.2%), F2-parental age at pregnancy of a given mother (10.4%), F3-living conditions (8.1%), F4-arterial blood pressure of mother (8.1%), F5-body size of the mother (6.5%), F6-traits of the menstrual cycle and morbidity of the mother (5.6%), F7-body size of the father (4.7%), and F8-characterized father's morbidity (4.4%). A relatively low but statistically significant correlation was found between the weight of placenta, on the one hand, and the weight and stature of the mother and number of pregnancies, on the other hand. A little higher correlation was found between the weight of placenta and the morbidity of the mother.

Dermal ridge patterns and fertility in a Polish rural sample.

The relationship between ridge counts and pattern intensities on fingers, palms and soles, and number of pregnancies, number of surviving children, maternal age at birth of first child, and miscarriages was investigated in a rural Polish sample of 273 females. All subjects had completed their reproduction by the time of investigation and the use of contraceptives was negligible. Results show that females with a history of miscarriage have lower mean ridge counts on all fingers and lower pattern intensity on all fingers except V, with statistically significant differences for fingers III and IV. The results also suggest a relationship between the intensity of patterns on fingers II and V and in thenar areas, with the number of pregnancies and/or surviving offspring. The limitations of the present data and a need for more specific investigations are discussed.