Functional genomic analysis of phthalate acid ester (PAE) catabolism genes in the versatile PAE-mineralising bacterium Rhodococcus sp. 2G.

Microbial degradation is considered the most promising method for removing phthalate acid esters (PAEs) from polluted environments; however, a comprehensive genomic understanding of the entire PAE catabolic process is still lacking. In this study, the repertoire of PAE catabolism genes in the metabolically versatile bacterium Rhodococcus sp. 2G was examined using genomic, metabolic, and bioinformatic analyses. A total of 4930 coding genes were identified from the 5.6 Mb genome of the 2G strain, including 337 esterase/hydrolase genes and 48 transferase and decarboxylase genes that were involved in hydrolysing PAEs into phthalate acid (PA) and decarboxylating PA into benzoic acid (BA). One gene cluster (xyl) responsible for transforming BA into catechol and two catechol-catabolism gene clusters controlling the ortho (cat) and meta (xyl &mhp) cleavage pathways were also identified. The proposed PAE catabolism pathway and some key degradation genes were validated by intermediate-utilising tests and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Our results provide novel insight into the mechanisms of PAE biodegradation at the molecular level and useful information on gene resources for future studies.

Effects of cattle grazing on small mammal communities in the Hulunber meadow steppe.

Small mammals play important roles in many ecosystems, and understanding their response to disturbances such as cattle grazing is fundamental for developing sustainable land use strategies. However, how small mammals respond to cattle grazing remains controversial. A potential cause is that most of previous studies adopt rather simple experimental designs based solely on the presence/absence of grazing, and are thus unable to detect any complex relationships between diversity and grazing intensity. In this study, we conducted manipulated experiments in the Hulunber meadow steppe to survey small mammal community structures under four levels of grazing intensities. We found dramatic changes in species composition in native small mammal communities when grazing intensity reached intermediate levels (0.46 animal unit/ha). As grazing intensity increased, Spermophilus dauricus gradually became the single dominant species. Species richness and diversity of small mammals in ungrazed and lightly grazed (0.23 animal unit/ha) area were much higher than in intermediately and heavily grazed area. We did not detect a humped relationship between small mammal diversity and disturbance levels predicted by the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). Our study highlighted the necessity of conducting manipulated experiments under multiple grazing intensities.

Optimization of Maximum Light Use Efficiency in Inner Mongolian Steppe.

For the case that the value of the maximum light use efficiency (MLUE) is not optimized for different steppes, we simulated the MLUE for meadow steppe, typical steppe and desert steppe in Inner Mongolia based on the field observed NPP and CASA ecosystem model, and analyzed the spatial and temporal pattern of the LUE and net primary productivity (NPP) in Inner Mongolia. The result indicate that the MLUE is optimized to be 0.654，0.553 and 0.511 gC·MJ-1 for meadow steppe, typical steppe and desert steppe in Inner Mongolia, respectively, with an average of 0.573 gC·MJ-1. Compared to the result that used same value of 0.541 gC·MJ-1 for MLUE, the correlation coefficient and relative mean square error was improved 0.024 and 2.62 gC·(m2·month-1)-1, respectively after optimization. Affected by the hydrothermal condition and distribution of grassland types, the LUE and NPP in Inner Mongolia decreased from northeast to southwest, and showed one crest shape. However, the maximum value of LUE and NPP was appeared in August and July. This difference could be attributed to the difference in the maximum value between absorbed photosynthetically active radiation and LUE. The LUE and NPP decreased by meadow steppe, typical steppe and desert steppe.

[Effect of grazing on the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in Hulunber meadow steppe].

Grazing is one of the major human activities which lead to disturbance on grassland ecosystem. Quantifying the effect of grazing on the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration ( Q10 ) is essential for accurate assessment of carbon budget in grassland ecosystem. This study was conducted on the grazing gradients experiment platform in Hulunber meadow steppe. Soil respiration was measured by a dynamic closed chamber method (equipped with Li 6400-09, Lincoln, NE, USA) during the growing season in 2011. The results showed that soil respiration had significant seasonal variation and the maximum occurred in July, which was mainly dominated by temperature. The order of average soil respiration during the period from May to September in different treatments was G1 > GO > G2 > G3 > G4 > G5. Comparing with non-grazing treatment, Q10 under heavy grazing conditions (0. 92 Au hm-2) was reduced by about 10% , and was increased a little under light grazing conditions (0. 23 Au hm-2). There was a significant negative correlation between Q15 and grazing intensities (r = 0. 944, P <0. 05) . Grazing could decrease the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration to different degrees. The Q10 under different grazing gradients had positive linear regression relationships with aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, soil organic carbon and soil moisture. They could explain 71.0%-85.2% variations of Q10. It was suggested that the variation of Q10 was mainly determined by the change of biotic and environmental factors due to grazing.

[CO, release characteristics from Stipa baicalensis meadow steppe in the Hulunbeir region, Inner Mogolia, China].

Based on the measurement of soil CO2 evolution with the Li-8150 from June 2009 to June 2010, the characteristics of soil CO2 flux from the Stipa baicalensis meadow steppe in the Hulunbeir, Inner Mongolia were analyzed. The daily dynamics of soil respiration rate in this study area presented a peak curve in growing season, the daily maximum value appeared in 13:00-15:00 p. m., while the minimum value appeared in 5:00-6:00 a. m. The soil respiration had obviously seasonal dynamics, similar with the dynamics of soil temperature and soil water content. The relationships of soil respiration with soil temperature and soil water content could be better expressed with linear or exponential-power equation. Using the Van' t Hoff exponential equation to fit soil respiration and soil temperature, the results showed that they all had good exponential regression relationships in growing season and in non-growing season. Q10 was slightly different at different depths, varying from 1.68 to 2.14 in growing season and from 3.03 to 3.60 in non-growing season. The effect of soil temperature on soil respiration was more sensitive in non-growing season than in growing season. There was significant a correlation between soil respiration and soil water content at the depth of 10 cm. The annual soil CO2 fluxes were 488.47 g C x a(-1) and 507.20 g C x a(-1) in 2009 and 2010, respectively. The contribution of soil respiration in growing season to the annual soil CO2 flux was about 90%.

Spatial patterns and climate drivers of carbon fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems of China.

Understanding the dynamics and underlying mechanism of carbon exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere is one of the key issues in global change research. In this study, we quantified the carbon fluxes in different terrestrial ecosystems in China, and analyzed their spatial variation and environmental drivers based on the long-term observation data of ChinaFLUX sites and the published data from other flux sites in China. The results indicate that gross ecosystem productivity (GEP), ecosystem respiration (ER), and net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of terrestrial ecosystems in China showed a significantly latitudinal pattern, declining linearly with the increase of latitude. However, GEP, ER, and NEP did not present a clear longitudinal pattern. The carbon sink functional areas of terrestrial ecosystems in China were mainly located in the subtropical and temperate forests, coastal wetlands in eastern China, the temperate meadow steppe in the northeast China, and the alpine meadow in eastern edge of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The forest ecosystems had stronger carbon sink than grassland ecosystems. The spatial patterns of GEP and ER in China were mainly determined by mean annual precipitation (MAP) and mean annual temperature (MAT), whereas the spatial variation in NEP was largely explained by MAT. The combined effects of MAT and MAP explained 79%, 62%, and 66% of the spatial variations in GEP, ER, and NEP, respectively. The GEP, ER, and NEP in different ecosystems in China exhibited 'positive coupling correlation' in their spatial patterns. Both ER and NEP were significantly correlated with GEP, with 68% of the per-unit GEP contributed to ER and 29% to NEP. MAT and MAP affected the spatial patterns of ER and NEP mainly by their direct effects on the spatial pattern of GEP.

[Spatiotemporal characteristics of MODIS NDVI in Hulunber Grassland].

Time-series MODIS NDVI datasets from 2000 to 2008 were used to study the spatial change trend, fluctuation degree, and occurrence time of the annual NDVImax of four typical grassland types, i.e., lowland meadow, temperate steppe, temperate meadow steppe, and upland meadow, in Hulunber Grassland. In 2000-2008, the vegetation in Hulunber Grassland presented an obvious deterioration trend. The mean annual NDVImax of the four grassland types had a great fluctuation, especially in temperate steppe where the maximum change in the mean value of annual NDVImax approximated to 50%. As for the area change of different grade grasslands, the areas with NDVImax between 0.4 and 1 accounted for about 91% of the total grassland area, which suggested the good vegetation coverage in the Grassland. However, though the areas with NDVImax values in (0.4, 0.8) showed an increasing trend, the areas with NDVImax values in (0.2, 0.4) and (0.8, 1) decreased greatly in the study period. Overall, the deteriorating grassland took up about 66.25% of the total area, and the restoring grassland took the rest. There was about 62.85% of the grassland whose NDVImax occurred between the 193rd day and the 225th day in each year, indicating that this period was the most important vegetation growth season in Hulunber Grassland.

[Influences of land using patterns on the anti-wind erosion of meadow grassland].

In order to analyse the effects of the human disturbances to the ability of anti-wind erosion of the Hulunbuir meadow grassland, the methods of vegetation investigation and the wind tunnel experiment were made to research the changes of vegetation and the abilities of anti-wind erosion of meadow grassland under different using patterns of meadow grassland. The results indicate that, under different grazing intensities of meadow grassland, the critical wind velocity of soil erosion (v) changes with the vegetation cover according to the relation of second power function. Along with the grazing intensities increasing and the vegetation cover reducing, the velocity of soil erosion rapidly increased on the condition of similar wind velocity which is speedier than the critical wind velocity of soil erosion. When the meadow grassland is mildly grazed which the vegetation cover maintains 63%, the velocity of soil erosion is small even there is gale that the wind velocity reach 25 m/s. When the vegetation cover of meadow grassland reduced to less than 35%, the velocity of soil erosion rapidly increased with the vegetation cover's reducing on the condition of the wind velocity is among 20-25 m/s. And owing to the no-tillage cropland of meadow grassland is completely far from the protection of the vegetation, the soil wind erosion quantity achieves 682.1 kg/hm2 in a minute when the wind velocity is 25 m/s, which approaches the average formation quantity of soil (1 000 kg/hm2) in a year.