A multi-institutional phase I study of acetazolamide with temozolomide in adults with newly diagnosed MGMT-methylated malignant glioma.

Background: A significant unmet need exists for the treatment of glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype (GBM). Preclinical work shows that acetazolamide sensitizes GBM to temozolomide (TMZ) by overcoming TMZ resistance due to BCL-3-dependent upregulation of carbonic anhydrase. Acetazolamide is Food and Drug Administration-approved for the treatment of altitude sickness. Drug repurposing enables the application of drugs to diseases beyond initial indications. This multi-institutional, open-label, phase I trial examined a combination of acetazolamide and TMZ in patients with MGMT promoter-methylated high-grade glioma. Methods: A total of 24 patients (GBM, IDH-wildtype = 22; Grade 4 astrocytoma, IDH-mutant = 1; Grade 3 astrocytoma, IDH-mutant = 1) were accrued over 17 months. All patients received oral acetazolamide (250 mg BID for 7 days increased to 500 mg BID for Days 8-21 of each 28-day cycle) during the adjuvant phase of TMZ for up to 6 cycles. Results: No patient had a dose-limiting toxicity. Adverse events were consistent with known sequelae of acetazolamide and TMZ. In the 23 WHO Grade 4 patients, the median overall survival (OS) was 30.1 months and the median progression-free survival was 16.0 months. The 2-year OS was 60.9%. In total 37% of the study population had high BCL-3 staining and trended toward shorter OS (17.2 months vs N.R., P = .06). Conclusions: The addition of acetazolamide is safe and tolerable in GBM patients receiving standard TMZ. Survival results compare favorably to historical data from randomized trials in patients with MGMT promoter-methylated GBM and support examination of acetazolamide in a randomized trial. BCL-3 expression is a potential biomarker for prognosis in GBM or for patients more likely to benefit from TMZ.

Advanced Age in Humans and Mouse Models of Glioblastoma Show Decreased Survival from Extratumoral Influence.

PURPOSE: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common aggressive primary malignant brain tumor in adults with a median age of onset of 68 to 70 years old. Although advanced age is often associated with poorer GBM patient survival, the predominant source(s) of maladaptive aging effects remains to be established. Here, we studied intratumoral and extratumoral relationships between adult patients with GBM and mice with brain tumors across the lifespan. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Electronic health records at Northwestern Medicine and the NCI SEER databases were evaluated for GBM patient age and overall survival. The commercial Tempus and Caris databases, as well as The Cancer Genome Atlas were profiled for gene expression, DNA methylation, and mutational changes with varying GBM patient age. In addition, gene expression analysis was performed on the extratumoral brain of younger and older adult mice with or without a brain tumor. The survival of young and old wild-type or transgenic (INK-ATTAC) mice with a brain tumor was evaluated after treatment with or without senolytics and/or immunotherapy. RESULTS: Human patients with GBM ≥65 years of age had a significantly decreased survival compared with their younger counterparts. While the intra-GBM molecular profiles were similar between younger and older patients with GBM, non-tumor brain tissue had a significantly different gene expression profile between young and old mice with a brain tumor and the eradication of senescent cells improved immunotherapy-dependent survival of old but not young mice. CONCLUSIONS: This work suggests a potential benefit for combining senolytics with immunotherapy in older patients with GBM.

Enhanced Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites with Nanocomposite Electrodes for Restoring Eyelid Movement of Patients with Ptosis.

The present study aims to use enhanced ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMC) as an artificial muscle (a soft-active actuator) to restore eyelid movement of patients with ptosis. The previous eyelid movement mechanisms contained drawbacks, specifically in the lower eyelid. We used finite element analysis (FEA) to find the optimal mechanism among two different models (A and B). In addition to common electrodes of IPMC (gold and platinum), the bovine serum albumin (BSA) and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) polymers, with optimal weight percentages of carbon nanotube (CNT) nanofiller, were also utilized as non-metallic electrodes to improve the efficiency of the IPMC actuator. In both models, IPMC with nanocomposite electrodes had higher efficiency as compared to the metallic electrodes. In model A, which moved eyelids indirectly, IPMC with MCC-CNT electrode generated a higher force (25.4%) and less stress (5.9 times) as compared to IPMC with BSA-CNT electrode. However, the use of model A (even with IPMCs) with nanocomposite electrodes can have limitations such as possible malposition issues in the eyelids (especially lower). IPMC with MCC-CNT nanocomposite electrode under model B, which moved eyelids directly, was the most efficient option to restore eyelid movement. It led to higher displacements and lower mechanical stress damage as compared to the BSA-CNT. This finding may provide surgeons with valuable data to open a window in the treatment of patients with ptosis.

Identification and Characterization of a Novel Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase 1 Protein Degrader for Glioblastoma.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is a potent immunosuppressive enzyme that inhibits the antitumor immune response through both tryptophan metabolism and non-enzymatic functions. To date, most IDO1-targeted approaches have focused on inhibiting tryptophan metabolism. However, this class of drugs has failed to improve the overall survival of patients with cancer. Here, we developed and characterized proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) that degrade the IDO1 protein. IDO1-PROTACs were tested for their effects on IDO1 enzyme and non-enzyme activities. After screening a library of IDO1-PROTAC derivatives, a compound was identified that potently degraded the IDO1 protein through cereblon-mediated proteasomal degradation. The IDO1-PROTAC: (i) inhibited IDO1 enzyme activity and IDO1-mediated NF-κB phosphorylation in cultured human glioblastoma (GBM) cells, (ii) degraded the IDO1 protein within intracranial brain tumors in vivo, and (iii) mediated a survival benefit in mice with well-established brain tumors. This study identified and characterized a new IDO1 protein degrader with therapeutic potential for patients with glioblastoma.

Long-term recovery behavior of brain tissue in hydrocephalus patients after shunting.

The unpredictable complexities in hydrocephalus shunt outcomes may be related to the recovery behavior of brain tissue after shunting. The simulated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) velocity and intracranial pressure (ICP) over 15 months after shunting were validated by experimental data. The mean strain and creep of the brain had notable changes after shunting and their trends were monotonic. The highest stiffness of the hydrocephalic brain was in the first consolidation phase (between pre-shunting to 1 month after shunting). The viscous component overcame and damped the input load in the third consolidation phase (after the fifteenth month) and changes in brain volume were stopped. The long-intracranial elastance (long-IE) changed oscillatory after shunting and there was not a linear relationship between long-IE and ICP. We showed the long-term effect of the viscous component on brain recovery behavior of hydrocephalic brain. The results shed light on the brain recovery mechanism after shunting and the mechanisms for shunt failure.

A New Definition for Intracranial Compliance to Evaluate Adult Hydrocephalus After Shunting.

The clinical application of intracranial compliance (ICC), ∆V/∆P, as one of the most critical indexes for hydrocephalus evaluation was demonstrated previously. We suggest a new definition for the concept of ICC (long-term ICC) where there is a longer amount of elapsed time (up to 18 months after shunting) between the measurement of two values (V1 and V2 or P1 and P2). The head images of 15 adult patients with communicating hydrocephalus were provided with nine sets of imaging in nine stages: prior to shunting, and 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 months after shunting. In addition to measuring CSF volume (CSFV) in each stage, intracranial pressure (ICP) was also calculated using fluid-structure interaction simulation for the noninvasive calculation of ICC. Despite small increases in the brain volume (16.9%), there were considerable decreases in the ICP (70.4%) and CSFV (80.0%) of hydrocephalus patients after 18 months of shunting. The changes in CSFV, brain volume, and ICP values reached a stable condition 12, 15, and 6 months after shunting, respectively. The results showed that the brain tissue needs approximately two months to adapt itself to the fast and significant ICP reduction due to shunting. This may be related to the effect of the "viscous" component of brain tissue. The ICC trend between pre-shunting and the first month of shunting was descending for all patients with a "mean value" of 14.75 ± 0.6 ml/cm H2O. ICC changes in the other stages were oscillatory (nonuniform). Our noninvasive long-term ICC calculations showed a nonmonotonic trend in the CSFV-ICP graph, the lack of a linear relationship between ICC and ICP, and an oscillatory increase in ICC values during shunt treatment. The oscillatory changes in long-term ICC may reflect the clinical variations in hydrocephalus patients after shunting.

Cerebrospinal fluid hydrocephalus shunting: cisterna magna, ventricular frontal, ventricular occipital.

Despite advances in cerebrospinal fluid shunting technology, complications remain a significant concern. There are some contradictions about the effectiveness of proximal catheter entry sites that decrease shunt failures. We aim to compare efficiency of shunts with ventricular frontal, ventricular occipital, and cisterna magna entry sites. The systemic search was conducted in the database from conception to February 16, 2022 following guidelines of PRISMA. Between 2860 identified articles, 24 articles including 6094 patients were used for data synthesis. The aggregated results of all patients showed that "overall shunt failure rate per year" in mixed hydrocephalus with ventricular frontal and occipital shunts, and cisterna magna shunt (CMS) were 9.0%, 12.6%, and 30.7%, respectively. The corresponding values for "shunt failure rate" due to obstruction were 15.3%, 31.5%, and 10.2%, respectively. The similar results for "shunt failure rate" due to infection were 11.3%, 9.1%, and 27.2%, respectively. The related values for "shunt failure rate" due to overdrainage were 2.9%, 3.9%, and 13.6%, respectively. CMS was successful in the immediate resolution of clinical symptoms. Shunting through an occipital entry site had a greater likelihood of inaccurate catheter placement and location. Contrary to possible shunt failure due to overdrainage, the failure likelihood due to obstruction and infection in pediatric patients was higher than that of mixed hydrocephalus patients. In both mixed and pediatric hydrocephalus, obstruction and overdrainage were the most and least common complications of ventricular frontal and occipital shunts, respectively. The most and least common complications of mixed CMS were infection and obstruction, respectively.

p52 signaling promotes cellular senescence.

BACKGROUND: Nuclear factor-κB is a multi-subunit transcription factor that plays a central role in cellular senescence. We previously reported that an increase in the p52 subunit is seen in senescent cells and aged tissue. In the current work, we examined the mechanism by which p52 is activated and whether the increase in p52 promotes senescence. RESULTS: Using both primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and WI-38 human lung fibroblasts, we examined cells after serial passage and following prolonged culture. An increase in p52 was found in the nucleus relative to pre-senescent cells. The increase in p52 protein was not reflected by an increase in NFKB2 mRNA or by an increase in the abundance of upstream activating kinases, IKKα and NIK. To examine whether p52 promotes senescence, we over-expressed mature p52 in primary MEFs. Significantly more senescence was seen compared to control, a finding not seen with p52 mutated at critical DNA binding residues. In addition, blocking p52 nuclear translocation with the peptide inhibitor, SN52, decreased ß-galactosidase (ß-gal) formation. Subsequent filtration studies demonstrated that proteins in conditioned media (CM) were necessary for the increase in p52 and mass spectrometry identified S100A4 and cyclophilin A (CYPA) as potential factors in CM necessary for induction of p52. The requirement of these proteins in CM for induction of p52 was confirmed using depletion and supplementation studies. In addition, we found that activation of STAT3 signaling was required for the increase in p52. Finally, genome wide ChIP-sequencing analysis confirmed that there is an increase in p52 chromatin enrichment with senescence and identified several downstream factors whose expression is regulated by increased p52 binding. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that p52 nuclear translocation is increased in senescent cells by factors in conditioned media and that mature p52 induces cellular senescence. The data are consistent with the prior observation that p52 is elevated in aged tissue and support the hypothesis that p52 contributes to organismal aging.

Glioblastoma as an age-related neurological disorder in adults.

BACKGROUND: Advanced age is a major risk factor for the development of many diseases including those affecting the central nervous system. Wild-type isocitrate dehydrogenase glioblastoma (IDHwt GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain cancer and accounts for ≥90% of all adult GBM diagnoses. Patients with IDHwt GBM have a median age of diagnosis at 68-70 years of age, and increasing age is associated with an increasingly worse prognosis for patients with this type of GBM. METHODS: The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results, The Cancer Genome Atlas, and the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas databases were analyzed for mortality indices. Meta-analysis of 80 clinical trials was evaluated for log hazard ratio for aging to tumor survivorship. RESULTS: Despite significant advances in the understanding of intratumoral genetic alterations, molecular characteristics of tumor microenvironments, and relationships between tumor molecular characteristics and the use of targeted therapeutics, life expectancy for older adults with GBM has yet to improve. CONCLUSIONS: Based upon the results of our analysis, we propose that age-dependent factors that are yet to be fully elucidated, contribute to IDHwt GBM patient outcomes.

Post-Trial Enhanced Deployment and Technical Performance with the MISTIE Procedure per Lessons Learned.

OBJECTIVE: We hypothesize that procedure deployment rates and technical performance with minimally invasive surgery and thrombolysis for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) evacuation (MISTIE) can be enhanced in post-trial clinical practice, per Phase III trial results and lessons learned. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified ICH patients and those who underwent MISTIE procedure between 2017-2021 at a single site, after completed enrollments in the Phase III trial. Deployment rates, complications and technical outcomes were compared to those observed in the trial. Initial and final hematoma volume were compared between site measurements using ABC/2, MISTIE trial reading center utilizing manual segmentation, and a novel Artificial Intelligence (AI) based volume assessment. RESULTS: Nineteen of 286 patients were eligible for MISTIE. All 19 received the procedure (6.6% enrollment to screening rate 6.6% compared to 1.6% at our center in the trial; p=0.0018). Sixteen patients (84%) achieved evaculation target < 15 mL residual ICH or > 70% removal, compared to 59.7% in the trial surgical cohort (p=0.034). No poor catheter placement occurred and no surgical protocol deviations. Limitations of ICH volume assessments using the ABC/2 method were shown, while AI based methodology of ICH volume assessments had excellent correlation with manual segmentation by experienced reading centers. CONCLUSIONS: Greater procedure deployment and higher technical success rates can be achieved in post-trial clinical practice than in the MISTIE III trial. AI based measurements can be deployed to enhance clinician estimated ICH volume. Clinical outcome implications of this enhanced technical performance cannot be surmised, and will need assessment in future trials.

An Alternative Pipeline for Glioblastoma Therapeutics: A Systematic Review of Drug Repurposing in Glioblastoma.

The treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) remains a significant challenge, with outcome for most pa-tients remaining poor. Although novel therapies have been developed, several obstacles restrict the incentive of drug developers to continue these efforts including the exorbitant cost, high failure rate and relatively small patient population. Repositioning drugs that have well-characterized mechanistic and safety profiles is an attractive alternative for drug development in GBM. In ad-dition, the relative ease with which repurposed agents can be transitioned to the clinic further supports their potential for examination in patients. Here, a systematic analysis of the literature and clinical trials provides a comprehensive review of primary articles and unpublished trials that use repurposed drugs for the treatment of GBM. The findings demonstrate that numerous drug classes that have a range of initial indications have efficacy against preclinical GBM models and that certain agents have shown significant potential for clinical benefit. With examination in randomized, placebo-controlled trials and the targeting of particular GBM subgroups, it is pos-sible that repurposing can be a cost-effective approach to identify agents for use in multimodal anti-GBM strategies.

CDK1 is up-regulated by temozolomide in an NF-κB dependent manner in glioblastoma.

The alkylating agent, temozolomide (TMZ), is the most commonly used chemotherapeutic for the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM). The anti-glioma effect of TMZ involves a complex response that includes G2-M cell cycle arrest and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) activation. While CDK1 phosphorylation is a well-described consequence of TMZ treatment, we find that TMZ also robustly induces CDK1 expression. Analysis of this pathway demonstrates that CDK1 is regulated by NF-κB via a putative κB-site in its proximal promoter. CDK1 was induced in a manner dependent on mature p50 and the atypical inhibitor κB protein, BCL-3. Treatment with TMZ induced binding of NF-κB to the κB-site as assessed by gel shift analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation. Examination of a CDK1 promoter-reporter demonstrated the functional relevance of the κB-site and underlined the requirement of p50 and BCL-3 for activation. Targeted knockdown of CDK1 or chemical inhibition with the selective CDK1 inhibitor, RO-3306, potentiated the cytotoxic effect of TMZ. These results identify CDK1 as an NF-κB target gene regulated by p50 and BCL-3 and suggest that targeting CDK1 may be a strategy to improve the efficacy of TMZ against GBM.

p50 mono-ubiquitination and interaction with BARD1 regulates cell cycle progression and maintains genome stability.

p50, the mature product of NFKB1, is constitutively produced from its precursor, p105. Here, we identify BARD1 as a p50-interacting factor. p50 directly associates with the BARD1 BRCT domains via a C-terminal phospho-serine motif. This interaction is induced by ATR and results in mono-ubiquitination of p50 by the BARD1/BRCA1 complex. During the cell cycle, p50 is mono-ubiquitinated in S phase and loss of this post-translational modification increases S phase progression and chromosomal breakage. Genome-wide studies reveal a substantial decrease in p50 chromatin enrichment in S phase and Cycln E is identified as a factor regulated by p50 during the G1 to S transition. Functionally, interaction with BARD1 promotes p50 protein stability and consistent with this, in human cancer specimens, low nuclear BARD1 protein strongly correlates with low nuclear p50. These data indicate that p50 mono-ubiquitination by BARD1/BRCA1 during the cell cycle regulates S phase progression to maintain genome integrity.

DDX39B interacts with the pattern recognition receptor pathway to inhibit NF-κB and sensitize to alkylating chemotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays a prominent role in promoting inflammation and resistance to DNA damaging therapy. We searched for proteins that modulate the NF-κB response as a prerequisite to identifying novel factors that affect sensitivity to DNA damaging chemotherapy. RESULTS: Using streptavidin-agarose pull-down, we identified the DExD/H-box RNA helicase, DDX39B, as a factor that differentially interacts with κB DNA probes. Subsequently, using both RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 technology, we demonstrated that DDX39B inhibits NF-κB activity by a general mechanism involving inhibition of p65 phosphorylation. Mechanistically, DDX39B mediates this effect by interacting with the pattern recognition receptor (PRR), LGP2, a pathway that required the cellular response to cytoplasmic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). From a functional standpoint, loss of DDX39B promoted resistance to alkylating chemotherapy in glioblastoma cells. Further examination of DDX39B demonstrated that its protein abundance was regulated by site-specific sumoylation that promoted its poly-ubiquitination and degradation. These post-translational modifications required the presence of the SUMO E3 ligase, PIASx-ß. Finally, genome-wide analysis demonstrated that despite the link to the PRR system, DDX39B did not generally inhibit interferon-stimulated gene expression, but rather acted to attenuate expression of factors associated with the extracellular matrix, cellular migration, and angiogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: These results identify DDX39B, a factor with known functions in mRNA splicing and nuclear export, as an RNA-binding protein that blocks a subset of the inflammatory response. While these findings identify a pathway by which DDX39B promotes sensitization to DNA damaging therapy, the data also reveal a mechanism by which this helicase may act to mitigate autoimmune disease.

Regulatable interleukin-12 gene therapy in patients with recurrent high-grade glioma: Results of a phase 1 trial.

Human interleukin-12 (hIL-12) is a cytokine with anticancer activity, but its systemic application is limited by toxic inflammatory responses. We assessed the safety and biological effects of an hIL-12 gene, transcriptionally regulated by an oral activator. A multicenter phase 1 dose-escalation trial (NCT02026271) treated 31 patients undergoing resection of recurrent high-grade glioma. Resection cavity walls were injected (day 0) with a fixed dose of the hIL-12 vector (Ad-RTS-hIL-12). The oral activator for hIL-12, veledimex (VDX), was administered preoperatively (assaying blood-brain barrier penetration) and postoperatively (measuring hIL-12 transcriptional regulation). Cohorts received 10 to 40 mg of VDX before and after Ad-RTS-hIL-12. Dose-related increases in VDX, IL-12, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) were observed in peripheral blood, with about 40% VDX tumor penetration. Frequency and severity of adverse events, including cytokine release syndrome, correlated with VDX dose, reversing promptly upon discontinuation. VDX (20 mg) had superior drug compliance and 12.7 months median overall survival (mOS) at mean follow-up of 13.1 months. Concurrent corticosteroids negatively affected survival: In patients cumulatively receiving >20 mg versus ≤20 mg of dexamethasone (days 0 to 14), mOS was 6.4 and 16.7 months, respectively, in all patients and 6.4 and 17.8 months, respectively, in the 20-mg VDX cohort. Re-resection in five of five patients with suspected recurrence after Ad-RTS-hIL-12 revealed mostly pseudoprogression with increased tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes producing IFN-γ and programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1). These inflammatory infiltrates support an immunological antitumor effect of hIL-12. This phase 1 trial showed acceptable tolerability of regulated hIL-12 with encouraging preliminary results.

Temozolomide Treatment Induces lncRNA MALAT1 in an NF-κB and p53 Codependent Manner in Glioblastoma.

Alkylating chemotherapy is a central component of the management of glioblastoma (GBM). Among the factors that regulate the response to alkylation damage, NF-κB acts to both promote and block cytotoxicity. In this study, we used genome-wide expression analysis in U87 GBM to identify NF-κB-dependent factors altered in response to temozolomide and found the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) MALAT1 as one of the most significantly upregulated. In addition, we demonstrated that MALAT1 expression was coregulated by p50 (p105) and p53 via novel κB- and p53-binding sites in the proximal MALAT1 coding region. Temozolomide treatment inhibited p50 recruitment to its cognate element as a function of Ser329 phosphorylation while concomitantly increasing p53 recruitment. Moreover, luciferase reporter studies demonstrated that both κB and p53 cis-elements were required for efficient transactivation in response to temozolomide. Depletion of MALAT1 sensitized patient-derived GBM cells to temozolomide cytotoxicity, and in vivo delivery of nanoparticle-encapsulated anti-MALAT1 siRNA increased the efficacy of temozolomide in mice bearing intracranial GBM xenografts. Despite these observations, in situ hybridization of GBM specimens and analysis of publicly available datasets revealed that MALAT1 expression within GBM tissue was not prognostic of overall survival. Together, these findings support MALAT1 as a target for chemosensitization of GBM and identify p50 and p52 as primary regulators of this ncRNA. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings identify NF-κB and p53 as regulators of the lncRNA MALAT1 and suggest MALAT1 as a potential target for the chemosensitization of GBM.

Primary Sellar Paraganglioma: Case Report with Literature Review and Immunohistochemistry Resource.

BACKGROUND: Differential diagnosis of sellar masses includes adenoma, meningioma, craniopharyngioma, and metastasis. Primary paraganglioma is seldom considered. We present a case of this unique pathology, review the relevant literature, and compile a compendium of immunohistochemical characteristics for use as a resource. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 73-year-old woman presented to the hospital with visual changes in her left hemifield. Noncontrast head computed tomography demonstrated a large sellar mass with suprasellar extension and displacement of the optic chiasm (diameter of 3.1 cm). Magnetic resonance imaging was unobtainable owing to an incompatible pacemaker. Computed tomography characterization was most consistent with a macroadenoma. Given the acute visual decline, surgical decompression via an endonasal transsphenoidal route was performed without complication. A diagnosis of paraganglioma was made based on histopathology. Following resection, the patient's visual field deficit improved. Computed tomography body imaging was negative for a metastatic origin. CONCLUSIONS: Paraganglioma is a rare but potential differential diagnosis to consider when evaluating sellar masses.

NF-κB, Mesenchymal Differentiation and Glioblastoma.

Although glioblastoma (GBM) has always been recognized as a heterogeneous tumor, the advent of largescale molecular analysis has enabled robust categorization of this malignancy into several specific subgroups. Among the subtypes designated by expression profiling, mesenchymal tumors have been associated with an inflammatory microenvironment, increased angiogenesis, and resistance to therapy. Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a ubiquitous transcription factor that plays a prominent role in mediating many of the central features associated with mesenchymal differentiation. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which NF-κB proteins and their co-regulating partners induce the transcriptional network that underlies the mesenchymal phenotype. Moreover, both the intrinsic changes within mesenchymal GBM cells and the microenvironmental factors that modify the overall NF-κB response are detailed.