Overexpression of HER-2 in MDA-MB-435/LCC6 Tumours is Associated with Higher Metabolic Activity and Lower Energy Stress.

Overexpresssion of HER-2 in the MDA-MB-435/LCC6 (LCC6(HER-2)) tumour model is associated with significantly increased hypoxia and reduced necrosis compared to isogenic control tumours (LCC6(Vector)); this difference was not related to tumour size or changes in vascular architecture. To further evaluate factors responsible for HER-2-associated changes in the tumour microenvironment, small animal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) were used to measure tumour tissue perfusion and metabolism, respectively. The imaging data was further corroborated by analysis of molecular markers pertaining to energy homeostasis, and measurements of hypoxia and glucose consumption. The results showed a strong trend towards higher perfusion rates (~58% greater, p = 0.14), and significantly higher glucose uptake in LCC6(HER-2) (~2-fold greater; p = 0.025), relative to control tumours. The expression of proteins related to energy stress (P-AMPK, P-ACC) and glucose transporters (GLUT1) were lower in LCC6(HER-2) tumours (~2- and ~4-fold, respectively). The in vitro analysis showed that LCC6(HER-2) cells become more hypoxic in 1% oxygen and utilise significantly more glucose in normoxia compared to LCC6(Vector)cells (p < 0.005). Amalgamation of all the data points suggests a novel metabolic adaptation driven by HER-2 overexpression where higher oxygen and glucose metabolic rates produce rich energy supply but also a more hypoxic tumour mass.

Induction of Cytotoxicity in Pyridine Analogues of the Anti-metastatic Ru(III) Complex NAMI-A by Ferrocene Functionalization.

A series of novel ferrocene (Fc) functionalized Ru(III) complexes was synthesized and characterized. These compounds are derivatives of the anti-metastatic Ru(III) complex imidazolium [trans-RuCl4(1H-imidazole) (DMSO-S)] (NAMI-A) and are derived from its pyridine analogue (NAMI-Pyr), with direct coupling of Fc to pyridine at the 4 or 3 positions, or at the 4 position via a two-carbon linker, which is either unsaturated (vinyl) or saturated (ethyl). Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and UV-vis spectroscopic studies of the ligand exchange processes of the compounds in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) report similar solution behavior to NAMI-Pyr. However, the complex with Fc substitution at the 3 position of the coordinated pyridine shows greater solution stability, through resistance to the formation of oligomeric species. Further EPR studies of the complexes with human serum albumin (hsA) indicate that the Fc groups enhance noncoordinate interactions with the protein and help to inhibit the formation of protein-coordinated species, suggesting the potential for enhanced bioavailability. Cyclic voltammetry measurements demonstrate that the Fc groups modestly reduce the reduction potential of the Ru(III) center as compared to NAMI-Pyr, while the reduction potentials of the Fc moieties of the four compounds vary by 217 mV, with the longer linkers giving significantly lower values of E1/2. EPR spectra of the compounds with 2-carbon linkers show the formation of a high-spin Fe(III) species (S = 5/2) in PBS with a distinctive signal at g = 4.3, demonstrating oxidation of the Fe(II) ferrocene center and likely reflecting degradation products. Density functional theory calculations and paramagnetic (1)H NMR describe delocalization of spin density onto the ligands and indicate that the vinyl linker could be a potential pathway for electron transfer between the Ru and Fe centers. In the case of the ethyl linker, electron transfer is suggested to occur via an indirect mechanism enabled by the greater flexibility of the ligand. In vitro assays with the SW480 cell line reveal cytotoxicity induced by the ruthenium ferrocenylpyridine complexes that is at least an order of magnitude higher than the unfunctionalized complex, NAMI-Pyr. Furthermore, migration studies with LNCaP cells reveal that Fc functionalization does not reduce the ability of the compounds to inhibit cell motility. Overall, these studies demonstrate that NAMI-A-type compounds can be functionalized with redox-active ligands to produce both cytotoxic and anti-metastatic activity.

Nitroimidazole-Containing H2dedpa and H2CHXdedpa Derivatives as Potential PET Imaging Agents of Hypoxia with (68)Ga.

(68)Ga is an attractive radiometal for use in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The success of (68)Ga-based agents is dependent on a chelator that exhibits rapid radiometal incorporation, and strong kinetic inertness to prevent transchelation of (68)Ga in vivo. The linear chelating agents H2dedpa (1,2-[[6-carboxypyridin-2-yl]methylamino]ethane) and H2CHXdedpa (CHX = cyclohexyl/cyclohexane) (N4O2) have recently been developed that bind Ga(3+) quickly and under mild conditions, ideal properties to be incorporated into a (68)Ga PET imaging agent. Herein, nitroimidazole (NI) derivatives of H2dedpa and H2CHXdedpa to investigate specific targeting of hypoxic tumor cells are investigated, given that NI can be reduced and retained exclusively in hypoxic cells. Nine N,N'-bis-alkylated derivatives of H2dedpa and H2CHXdedpa have been synthesized; they have been screened for their ability to bind gallium, and cyclic voltammetry of nonradioactive complexes was performed to probe the redox cycling mechanism of NI. The compounds were radiolabeled with (67)Ga and (68)Ga and show promising radiolabeling efficiencies (>99%) when labeled at 10(-5) M for 10 min at room temperature. Moreover, stability studies (via apo-transferrin challenge, 37 °C) show that the (67)Ga complexes exhibit exceptional stability (86-99% intact) after 2 h. In vitro uptake studies under hypoxic (0.5% O2) and normoxic (21% O2) conditions in three cancerous cell lines [HT-29 (colon), LCC6(HER-2) (breast), and CHO (Chinese hamster ovarian)] were performed. Of the four H2dedpa or H2CHXdedpa NI derivatives tested, all showed preferential uptake in hypoxic cells compared to normoxic cells with hypoxic/normoxic ratios as high as 7.9 ± 2.7 after 120 min. The results suggest that these novel bis-alkylated NI-containing H2dedpa and H2CHXdedpa ligands would be ideal candidates for further testing in vivo for PET imaging of hypoxia with (68)Ga.

Increasing the bioavailability of Ru(III) anticancer complexes through hydrophobic albumin interactions.

A series of pyridine-based derivatives of the clinically successful Ru(III)-based complexes indazolium [trans-RuCl4(1H-indazole)2] (KP1019) and sodium [trans-RuCl4(1H-indazole)2] (KP1339) have been synthesized to probe the effect of hydrophobic interactions with human serum albumin (hsA) on anticancer activity. The solution behavior and protein interactions of the new compounds were characterized by using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and UV/Vis spectroscopy. These studies have revealed that incorporation of hydrophobic substituents at the 4'-position of the axial pyridine ligand stabilizes non-coordinate interactions with hsA. As a consequence, direct coordination to the protein is inhibited, which is expected to increase the bioavailability of the complexes, thus potentially leading to improved anticancer activity. By using this approach, the lifetimes of hydrophobic protein interactions were extended from 2 h for the unsubstituted pyridine complex, to more than 24 h for several derivatives. Free complexes were tested for their anticancer activity against the SW480 human colon carcinoma cell line, exhibiting low cytotoxicity. Pre-treatment with hsA improved the solubility of every compound and led to some changes in activity. Particularly notable was the difference in activity between the methyl- and dibenzyl-functionalized complexes. The former shows reduced activity after incubation with hsA, indicating reduced bioavailability due to protein coordination. The latter exhibits little activity on its own but, following treatment with hsA, exhibited significant cytotoxicity, which is consistent with its ability to form non-coordinate interactions with the protein. Overall, our studies demonstrate that non-coordinate interactions with hsA are a viable target for enhancing the activity of Ru(III)-based complexes in vivo.

Imaging tumor vasculature noninvasively with positron emission tomography and RGD peptides labeled with copper 64 using the bifunctonal chelates DOTA, oxo-DO3a. and PCTA.

Two novel bifunctional chelates, 3,6,9,15-tetraazabicyclo[9.3.1]pentadeca-1(15),11,13-triene-3,6,9-triacetic acid (PCTA) and 1-oxa-4,7,10-triazacyclododecane-4,7,10-triacetic acid (Oxo-DO3A), were found to radiolabel antibodies with copper 64 (64Cu) well for positron emission tomography (PET). In this study, the same chelators were used to radiolabel peptides with 64Cu for PET imaging of angiogenesis. PCTA, Oxo-DO3A, and 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N',N'',N'''-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) were conjugated to cyclic-(RGDyK), and their binding affinities were confirmed. Conditions for 64Cu radiolabeling were optimized for maximum yield and specific activity. The in vitro stability of the radiolabeled compounds was challenged with serum incubation. PET studies were carried out in a non-αvß3-expressing tumor model to evaluate the compounds' specificity for proliferating tumor vasculature and their in vivo pharmacokinetics. The PCTA and Oxo-DO3A bioconjugates were labeled with 64Cu at higher effective specific activity and radiochemical yield than the DOTA bioconjugate. In the imaging studies, all the 64Cu bioconjugates could be used to visualize the tumor and the radiotracer uptake was blocked with cyclic-(RGDyK). Target uptake of each bioconjugate was similar, but differences in other tissues were observed. 64Cu-PCTA-RGD showed the best clearance from nontarget tissue and the highest tumor to nontarget ratios. PCTA was the most promising bifunctional chelate for 64Cu peptide imaging and warrants further investigation.

(68)Ga small peptide imaging: comparison of NOTA and PCTA.

In this study, a bifunctional version of the chelate PCTA was compared to the analogous NOTA derivative for peptide conjugation, (68)Ga radiolabeling, and small peptide imaging. Both p-SCN-Bn-PCTA and p-SCN-Bn-NOTA were conjugated to cyclo-RGDyK. The resulting conjugates, PCTA-RGD and NOTA-RGD, retained their affinity for the peptide target, the α(v)ß(3) receptor. Both PCTA-RGD and NOTA-RGD could be radiolabeled with (68)Ga in >95% radiochemical yield (RCY) at room temperature within 5 min. For PCTA-RGD, higher effective specific activities, up to 55 MBq/nmol, could be achieved in 95% RCY with gentle heating at 40 °C. The (68)Ga-radiolabeled conjugates were >90% stable in serum and in the presence of excess apo-transferrin over 4 h; (68)Ga-PCTA-RGD did have slightly lower stability than (68)Ga-NOTA-RGD, 93 ± 2% compared to 98 ± 1%, at the 4 h time point. Finally, the tumor and nontarget organ uptake and clearance of (68)Ga-radiolabeled PCTA-RGD and NOTA-RGD was compared in mice bearing HT-29 colorectal tumor xenografts. Activity cleared quickly from the blood and muscle tissue with >90% and >70% of the initial activity cleared within the first 40 min, respectively. The majority of activity was observed in the kidney, liver, and tumor tissue. The observed tumor uptake was specific with up to 75% of the tumor uptake blocked when the mice were preinjected with 160 nmol (100 µg) of unlabeled peptide. Uptake observed in the blocked tumors was not significantly different than the background activity observed in muscle tissue. The only significant difference between the two (68)Ga-radiolabeled bioconjugates in vivo was the kidney uptake. (68)Ga-radiolabeled PCTA-RGD had significantly lower (p < 0.05) kidney uptake (1.1 ± 0.5%) at 2 h postinjection compared to (68)Ga-radiolabeled NOTA-RGD (2.7 ± 1.3%). Overall, (68)Ga-radiolabeled PCTA-RGD and NOTA-RGD performed similarly, but the lower kidney uptake for (68)Ga-radiolabeled PCTA-RGD may be advantageous in some imaging applications.

RGD conjugates of the H2dedpa scaffold: synthesis, labeling and imaging with 68Ga.

INTRODUCTION: The rekindled interest in the (68)Ga generator as an attractive positron emission tomography generator system has led us and others to investigate novel chelate systems for (68)Ga. We have previously reported our findings with the acyclic, rapidly coordinating chelate H(2)dedpa and its model derivatives. METHODS: In this report, we describe the synthesis of the corresponding bifunctional chelate scaffolds (H(2)dp-bb-NCS and H(2)dp-N-NCS) as well as the radiolabeling properties, transferrin stability, binding to the target using in vitro cell models and in vivo behavior the corresponding conjugates with the α(v)ß(3) targeting cyclic pentapeptide cRGDyK (monomeric H(2)RGD-1 and dimeric H(2)RGD-2). RESULTS: The ability of the conjugated ligands to coordinate Ga isotopes within 10 min at room temperature at concentrations of 1 nmol was confirmed. Complex [(67)Ga(RGD-1)](+) was more stable (92% after 2 h) than [(67)Ga(RGD-2)](+) (73% after 2 h) in a transferrin challenge experiment. IC(50) values for both conjugates (H(2)RGD-1 and H(2)RGD-2) and nonconjugated RGD were determined in a cell-based competitive binding assay with (125)I-echistatin using U87MG cells, where enhanced specific binding was observed for the multivalent H(2)RGD-2 conjugate compared to the monovalent H(2)RGD-1 and nonconjugated cRGDyK. The U87MG cell line was also used to generate subcutaneous xenograft tumors on RAG2M mice, which were used to evaluate the in vivo properties of [(68)Ga(RGD-1)](+) and [(68)Ga(RGD-2)](+). After 2 h of dynamic imaging, both block and nonblock mice were sacrificed to collect select organs at the 2-h time point. Although the uptake is specific, as judged from the ratios of nonblock to block (2.36 with [(67)Ga(RGD-1)](+), 1.46 with [(67)Ga(RGD-2)](+)), both conjugates display high uptake in blood. CONCLUSIONS: We have successfully synthesized and applied the first bifunctional versions of H(2)dedpa for conjugation to a targeting vector and subsequent imaging of the corresponding conjugates.

Comparison of bifunctional chelates for (64)Cu antibody imaging.

PURPOSE: Improved bifunctional chelates (BFCs) are needed to facilitate efficient (64)Cu radiolabeling of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) under mild conditions and to yield stable, target-specific agents. The utility of two novel BFCs, 1-Oxa-4,7,10-triazacyclododecane-5-S-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-4,7,10-triacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-Oxo-DO3A) and 3,6,9,15-tetraazabicyclo[9.3.1]pentadeca-1(15),11,13-triene-4-S-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-3,6,9-triacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-PCTA), for mAb imaging with (64)Cu were compared to the commonly used S-2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-tetraacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-DOTA). METHODS: The BFCs were conjugated to trastuzumab, which targets the HER2/neu receptor. (64)Cu radiolabeling of the conjugates was optimized. Receptor binding was analyzed using flow cytometry and radioassays. Finally, PET imaging and biodistribution studies were done in mice bearing either HER2/neu-positive or HER2/neu-negative tumors. RESULTS: (64)Cu-Oxo-DO3A- and PCTA-trastuzumab were prepared at room temperature in >95% radiochemical yield (RCY) in <30 min, compared to only 88% RCY after 2 h for the preparation of (64)Cu-DOTA-trastuzumab under the same conditions. Cell studies confirmed that the immunoreactivity of the mAb was retained for each of the bioconjugates. In vivo studies showed that (64)Cu-Oxo-DO3A- and PCTA-trastuzumab had higher uptake than the (64)Cu-DOTA-trastuzumab at 24 h in HER2/neu-positive tumors, resulting in higher tumor to background ratios and better tumor images. By 40 h all three of the (64)Cu-BFC-trastuzumab conjugates allowed for clear visualization of the HER2/neu-positive tumors but not the negative control tumor. CONCLUSION: The antibody conjugates of PCTA and Oxo-DO3A were shown to have superior (64)Cu radiolabeling efficiency and stability compared to the analogous DOTA conjugate. In addition, (64)Cu-PCTA and Oxo-DO3A antibody conjugates may facilitate earlier imaging with greater target to background ratios than the analogous (64)Cu-DOTA antibody conjugates.

Irinophore C, a novel nanoformulation of irinotecan, alters tumor vascular function and enhances the distribution of 5-fluorouracil and doxorubicin.

PURPOSE: To examine the antitumor effects of Irinophore C, a nanopharmaceutical formulation of irinotecan, on the tissue morphology and function of tumor vasculature in HT-29 human colorectal tumors. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Fluorescence microscopy was used to map and quantify changes in tissue density, tumor vasculature, hypoxia, and the distribution of Hoechst 33342, a perfusion marker, and the anticancer drug, doxorubicin. Noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging was used to quantify Ktrans, the volume transfer constant of a solute between the blood vessels and extracellular tissue compartment of the tumor, as a measure of vascular function. Following treatment with Irinophore C, 19F magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to monitor the delivery of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to the tumor tissue, whereas scintigraphy was used to quantify the presence of bound [14C]5-FU. RESULTS: Irinophore C decreased cell density (P = 8.42 x 10(-5)), the overall number of endothelial cells in the entire section (P = 0.014), tumor hypoxia (P = 5.32 x 10(-9)), and K(trans) (P = 0.050). However, treatment increased the ratio of endothelial cells to cell density (P = 0.00024) and the accumulation of Hoechst 33342 (P = 0.022), doxorubicin (P = 0.243 x 10(-5)), and 5-FU (P = 0.0002) in the tumor. Vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-8, two proangiogenic factors, were down-regulated, whereas the antiangiogenic factor TIMP-1 was up-regulated in Irinophore C-treated tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Irinophore C treatment improves the vascular function of the tumor, thereby reducing tumor hypoxia and increasing the delivery and accumulation of a second drug. Reducing hypoxia would enhance radiotherapy, whereas improving delivery of a second drug to the tumor should result in higher cell kill.

Assessment of vessel size by MRI in an orthotopic model of human pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with no cure. Therapies that target the tumor vasculature are promising new treatment strategies. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can non-invasively determine a vessel size index and a blood volume fraction to characterize the vascular compartment in a tumor. The changes in the T2 and T2* relaxation rate constants after the administration of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles are dependent on the size and morphology of tissue blood vessels. In this study, MRI was used to investigate changes in the tumor vasculature in an orthotopic primary human pancreatic cancer xenograft model during tumor progression. The SPIO contrast agent Feridex I.V. was first validated as an intravascular contrast agent over the course of the imaging session, and shown to remain in the blood for at least 1.5 h. The average vessel size index was not correlated to the tumor area within an image slice, but the average blood volume fraction was significantly and negatively correlated to the tumor area (p<0.05). Blood volume fraction may serve as a non-invasive biomarker for changes in the tumor vasculature due to tumor growth Further investigation is needed to evaluate this promising technique as a tool to monitor tumor vascular changes in response to antiangiogenic therapies in pancreatic cancer.

Decreased levels of hypoxic cells in gefitinib treated ER+ HER-2 overexpressing MCF-7 breast cancer tumors are associated with hyperactivation of the mTOR pathway: therapeutic implications for combination therapy with rapamycin.

Developing novel synergistic and more effective combination treatments is necessary for better management of breast cancer in the clinic. It is established that HER-2 overexpressing breast cancers are sensitive to the HER-1 (epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)) inhibitor gefitinib, but that this targeted agent produces only moderate therapeutic effects in vivo. Here, we use a model of ER(+) HER-2 overexpressing MCF-7 breast cancer (MCF-7(HER-2)) to identify, as broadly as possible, the in vivo microenvironmental and molecular therapeutic responses to gefitinib to predict a therapeutically viable target for gefitinib-based combination treatment. Our data show a link between in vivo reductions in tumor hypoxia (3-fold decrease, P = 0.002) and elevated activity of the mTOR pathway (3.8-fold increase in phospho-p70-S6K protein, P = 0.006) in gefitinib treated MCF-7(HER-2) tumors. Despite decreased levels of phosphorylated EGFR, HER-2 and Erk1/2 (P = 0.081, 0.005 and 0.034, respectively) the expression of phospho-AKT was not reduced in MCF-7(HER-2) tumors after gefitinib treatment. Levels of ERalpha receptor were, however, 1.8-fold higher in gefitinib treated compared to control tumors (P = 0.008). Based on these results we predict that gefitinib activity against ER(+) HER-2 overexpressing EGFR co-expressing breast cancers should be enhanced if used with agents that target the mTOR pathway. In vitro studies using MCF-7(HER-2) and BT474 breast cancer cells exposed to gefitinib and rapamycin in combination show that this combination produced significantly greater growth inhibitory effects than either of the drugs alone. Chou and Talalay analysis of the data suggested that combination of gefitinib and rapamycin was synergistic (CI < 1) at a number of selected drug ratios and over a broad range of effective doses.

Non-invasive evaluation of tumour hypoxia in the Shionogi tumour model for prostate cancer with 18F-EF5 and positron emission tomography.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate hypoxia non-invasively in androgen-dependent (AD), regressing (6-days after castration, RG) and androgen-independent (AI) Shionogi tumours, using the radiolabelled tracer for hypoxia, 18F-EF5, and positron emission tomography (PET). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Groups of mice bearing AD, RG and AI Shionogi tumours were co-injected with 18F-EF5 and unlabelled EF5. The mice were imaged non-invasively with PET to examine the accumulation of 18F-EF5 in hypoxic regions of the tumour. The tumours were subsequently placed in a gamma-counter, or disaggregated for flow cytometry, to determine the levels of 18F-EF5 and the percentage of hypoxic cells present in the tumour, respectively. RESULTS: The mean (sd) levels of hypoxia in AD Shionogi tumours decreased significantly 6 days after androgen ablation as measured by flow cytometry, from 17.1 (4.77) to 1.74 (0.46)% (P=0.003). There were no significant differences in the levels of 18F-EF5 in the tissue between AD and RG tumours using region-of-interest analysis of PET images or gamma-counting, although the differences were significant when measured by flow cytometry. However, mean (sd) levels of hypoxia in AI Shionogi tumours were significantly higher than in AD tumours regardless of the analysis method; PET, 10.5 (4.93)x10(-5)) Bq/cm2 (P=0.017), flow cytometry, 42.98 (3.35)% (P<0.001), well count, 6.81 (1.17)x10(4) and 13.1 (1.99)x10(4) cpm/g, for AD and AI tumours, respectively (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Differences in hypoxia between AD and AI, but not RG, Shionogi tumours can be detected non-invasively with 18F-EF5 and PET. As prostate tumours are hypoxic and the oxygen levels can change with androgen ablation, noninvasive imaging of hypoxia with PET and 18F-EF5 might ultimately have a prognostic and/or diagnostic role in the clinical management of the disease.

Hypoxia in the androgen-dependent Shionogi model for prostate cancer at three stages.

The objective of this study was to investigate a possible relationship between androgen status and hypoxia in the Shionogi murine prostate tumor model, which is widely used to study the effects of androgen withdrawal on hormone resistance and radiation response. Binding of the nitroimidazole hypoxia marker EF5 was assessed using the Cy3-tagged monoclonal antibody ELK3-51. Three hours after injection of EF5 (30 mg/kg), tumors from the following three stages were excised: androgen-dependent, regressed tumors 7 days after castration, and androgen-independent. Half of each tumor was disaggregated for analysis by flow cytometry and the remainder was flash frozen. Statistically significant differences (P < 0.01) were found between androgen-dependent, regressed and androgen-dependent tumors: approximately 30, approximately 2 and approximately 50% hypoxic cells, respectively. Frozen sections from androgen-dependent tumors exhibited highly variable EF5 binding; regressed tumors showed very little or no binding; each section from androgen-dependent tumors showed high levels and uniformly distributed binding of EF5. There was no correlation between the degree of hypoxia and tumor weight (P > 0.1). The results from this preliminary study indicate that hypoxia may play an important role with respect to the timing of irradiation in prostate cancer treatments and possibly may be a useful prognostic tool. In addition, hypoxia may also be relevant to progression in this disease after androgen ablation.

HER-2/neu overexpression increases the viable hypoxic cell population within solid tumors without causing changes in tumor vascularization.

The effects of HER-2/neu overexpression on the tumor microenvironment in an aggressive breast cancer xenograft model were investigated. These studies focused on tumors derived following the subcutaneous injection of MDA-MB-435/LCC6 cells transfected with human c-erbB2 (LCC6(HER-2)) into SCID-Rag2M mice. LCC6(HER-2) tumors were more viable (H&E-stained tumor sections) than isogenic vector control tumors (LCC6(Vector)). Correspondingly, a 2.7-fold increase in trypan blue-excluding cells (P = 0.00056) and a 4.8-fold increase in clonogenic cells (P = 0.00146) were noted in cell suspensions derived from disaggregated LCC6(HER-2) versus LCC6(Vector) tumors. Tumor sections stained with the antibody detecting 2-(2-nitro-1H-imidazol-1-yl)-N-(2,2,3,3,3-pentafluoropropyl)-acetamide (EF5), a marker of hypoxia, showed a greater fraction of hypoxic tissue in LCC6(HER-2) tumors compared with control tumors. Flow cytometric analyses based on viable tumor cells (DNA content >/= 2N) in cell suspensions from disaggregated tumors confirmed that there were significantly more EF5-positive cells (i.e., hypoxic) in LCC6(HER-2) than in LCC6(Vector) tumors (16.41 +/- 8.1% and 5.96 +/- 4.1%, respectively; P = 0.0015). Protein levels of phosphorylated (Ser(536)) nuclear factor-kappaB p65 were significantly elevated in LCC6(HER-2) tumors (P = 0.00048), and a trend in increased hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha protein levels was observed in LCC6(HER-2) compared with LCC6(Vector) tumors. Despite the substantial viable hypoxic cell fraction and a 1.7-fold increase of vascular endothelial growth factor protein (P = 0.05) in LCC6(HER-2) tumors, no significant differences were found (P > 0.05) between LCC6(HER-2) and LCC6(Vector) vasculature (CD31 staining and Hoechst 33342 perfusion). These results suggest that HER-2/neu overexpression may be linked with overall increased tumor viability and a significant increase in the population of viable hypoxic cells, which is not due to differences in tumor vascularization.

Lansium domesticum: skin and leaf extracts of this fruit tree interrupt the lifecycle of Plasmodium falciparum, and are active towards a chloroquine-resistant strain of the parasite (T9) in vitro.

Malaria remains a global problem in the light of chloroquine-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. New compounds are needed for the development of novel antimalarial drugs. Seed, leaf, and fruit skin extracts of Lansium domesticum, a common fruit tree in South-East Asia, are used by indigenous tribes in Sabah, Malaysia for treating malaria. The skin and aqueous leaf extracts of the tree were found to reduce parasite populations of the drug sensitive strain (3D7) and the chloroquine-resistant strain (T9) of P. falciparum equally well. The skin extracts were also found to interrupt the lifecycle of the parasite. The data reported here indicate that extracts of L. domesticum are a potential source for compounds with activity towards chloroquine-resistant strains of P. falciparum.