Interleukin-36 Cytokines in Infectious and Non-Infectious Lung Diseases.

The IL-36 family of cytokines were identified in the early 2000's as a new subfamily of the IL-1 cytokine family, and since then, the role of IL-36 cytokines during various inflammatory processes has been characterized. While most of the research has focused on the role of these cytokines in autoimmune skin diseases such as psoriasis and dermatitis, recent studies have also shown the importance of IL-36 cytokines in the lung inflammatory response during infectious and non-infectious diseases. In this review, we discuss the biology of IL-36 cytokines in terms of how they are produced and activated, as well as their effects on myeloid and lymphoid cells during inflammation. We also discuss the role of these cytokines during lung infectious diseases caused by bacteria and influenza virus, as well as other inflammatory conditions in the lungs such as allergic asthma, lung fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis and cancer. Finally, we discuss the current therapeutic advances that target the IL-36 pathway and the possibility to extend these tools to treat lung inflammatory diseases.

Thrombospondin-1 Restricts Interleukin-36γ-Mediated Neutrophilic Inflammation during Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pulmonary Infection.

Interleukin-36γ (IL-36γ), a member of the IL-1 cytokine superfamily, amplifies lung inflammation and impairs host defense during acute pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. To be fully active, IL-36γ is cleaved at its N-terminal region by proteases such as neutrophil elastase (NE) and cathepsin S (CatS). However, it remains unclear whether limiting extracellular proteolysis restrains the inflammatory cascade triggered by IL-36γ during P. aeruginosa infection. Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) is a matricellular protein with inhibitory activity against NE and the pathogen-secreted Pseudomonas elastase LasB-both proteases implicated in amplifying inflammation. We hypothesized that TSP-1 tempers the inflammatory response during lung P. aeruginosa infection by inhibiting the proteolytic environment required for IL-36γ activation. Compared to wild-type (WT) mice, TSP-1-deficient (Thbs1-/-) mice exhibited a hyperinflammatory response in the lungs during P. aeruginosa infection, with increased cytokine production and an unrestrained extracellular proteolytic environment characterized by higher free NE and LasB, but not CatS activity. LasB cleaved IL-36γ proximally to M19 at a cleavage site distinct from those generated by NE and CatS, which cleave IL-36γ proximally to Y16 and S18, respectively. N-terminal truncation experiments in silico predicted that the M19 and the S18 isoforms bind the IL-36R complex almost identically. IL-36γ neutralization ameliorated the hyperinflammatory response and improved lung immunity in Thbs1-/- mice during P. aeruginosa infection. Moreover, administration of cleaved IL-36γ induced cytokine production and neutrophil recruitment and activation that was accentuated in Thbs1-/- mice lungs. Collectively, our data show that TSP-1 regulates lung neutrophilic inflammation and facilitates host defense by restraining the extracellular proteolytic environment required for IL-36γ activation.IMPORTANCEPseudomonas aeruginosa pulmonary infection can lead to exaggerated neutrophilic inflammation and tissue destruction, yet host factors that regulate the neutrophilic response are not fully known. IL-36γ is a proinflammatory cytokine that dramatically increases in bioactivity following N-terminal processing by proteases. Here, we demonstrate that thrombospondin-1, a host matricellular protein, limits N-terminal processing of IL-36γ by neutrophil elastase and the Pseudomonas aeruginosa-secreted protease LasB. Thrombospondin-1-deficient mice (Thbs1-/-) exhibit a hyperinflammatory response following infection. Whereas IL-36γ neutralization reduces inflammatory cytokine production, limits neutrophil activation, and improves host defense in Thbs1-/- mice, cleaved IL-36γ administration amplifies neutrophilic inflammation in Thbs1-/- mice. Our findings indicate that thrombospondin-1 guards against feed-forward neutrophilic inflammation mediated by IL-36γ in the lung by restraining the extracellular proteolytic environment.

The Access Technology Program of the Indiana Clinical Translational Sciences Institute (CTSI): A model to facilitate access to cutting-edge technologies across a state.

INTRODUCTION: Access to cutting-edge technologies is essential for investigators to advance translational research. The Indiana Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute (CTSI) spans three major and preeminent universities, four large academic campuses across the state of Indiana, and is mandate to provide best practices to a whole state. METHODS: To address the need to facilitate the availability of innovative technologies to its investigators, the Indiana CTSI implemented the Access Technology Program (ATP). The activities of the ATP, or any program of the Indiana CTSI, are challenged to connect technologies and investigators on the multiple Indiana CTSI campuses by the geographical distances between campuses (1-4 hr driving time). RESULTS: Herein, we describe the initiatives developed by the ATP to increase the availability of state-of-the-art technologies to its investigators on all Indiana CTSI campuses, and the methods developed by the ATP to bridge the distance between campuses, technologies, and investigators for the advancement of clinical translational research. CONCLUSIONS: The methods and practices described in this publication may inform other approaches to enhance translational research, dissemination, and usage of innovative technologies by translational investigators, especially when distance or multi-campus cultural differences are factors to efficient application.

Structural and Functional Attributes of the Interleukin-36 Receptor.

Signal transduction by the IL-36 receptor (IL-36R) is linked to several human diseases. However, the structure and function of the IL-36R is not well understood. A molecular model of the IL-36R complex was generated and a cell-based reporter assay was established to assess the signal transduction of recombinant subunits of the IL-36R. Mutational analyses and functional assays have identified residues of the receptor subunit IL-1Rrp2 needed for cytokine recognition, stable protein expression, disulfide bond formation and glycosylation that are critical for signal transduction. We also observed that, overexpression of ectodomain (ECD) of Il-1Rrp2 or IL-1RAcP exhibited dominant-negative effect on IL-36R signaling. The presence of IL-36 cytokine significantly increased the interaction of IL-1Rrp2 ECD with the co-receptor IL-1RAcP. Finally, we found that single nucleotide polymorphism A471T in the Toll-interleukin 1 receptor domain (TIR) of the IL-1Rrp2 that is present in ∼2% of the human population, down-regulated IL-36R signaling by a decrease of interaction with IL-1RAcP.

Novel clathrin activity: developments in health and disease.

Clathrin self-assembles into a coat around vesicles filled with cargo such as nutrients, hormones, and proteins destined for degradation. Recent developments indicate clathrin is not a specialist, but is involved in different processes relevant to health and disease. Clathrin is used to strengthen centrosomes and mitotic spindles essential for chromosome segregation in cell division. In Wnt signaling, clathrin is a component of signalosomes on the plasma membrane needed to produce functional Wnt receptors. In glucose metabolism, a muscle-specific isoform, CHC22 clathrin, is key to the formation of storage compartments for GLUT4 receptor, and CHC22 dysfunction has been tied to type 2 diabetes. The activity of clathrin to self-assemble and to work with huntingtin-interacting proteins to organize actin is exploited by Listeria and enteropathic Escherichia coli in their infection pathways. Finally, there is an important connection between clathrin and human malignancies. Clathrin is argued to help transactivate tumor suppressor p53 that controls specific genes in DNA repair and apoptosis. However, this is debatable because trimeric clathrin must be made monomeric. To get insight on how the clathrin structure could be converted, the crystal structure of the trimerization domain is used in the development of the detrimerization switch hypothesis. This novel hypothesis will be relevant if connections continue to be found between CHC17 and p53 anti-cancer activity in the nucleus.

Unconventional functions for clathrin, ESCRTs, and other endocytic regulators in the cytoskeleton, cell cycle, nucleus, and beyond: links to human disease.

The roles of clathrin, its regulators, and the ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport) proteins are well defined in endocytosis. These proteins can also participate in intracellular pathways that are independent of endocytosis and even independent of the membrane trafficking function of these proteins. These nonendocytic functions involve unconventional biochemical interactions for some endocytic regulators, but can also exploit known interactions for nonendocytic functions. The molecular basis for the involvement of endocytic regulators in unconventional functions that influence the cytoskeleton, cell cycle, signaling, and gene regulation are described here. Through these additional functions, endocytic regulators participate in pathways that affect infection, glucose metabolism, development, and cellular transformation, expanding their significance in human health and disease.

Nuclear localization of clathrin involves a labile helix outside the trimerization domain.

Clathrin is a trimeric protein involved in receptor-mediated-endocytosis, but can function as a non-trimer outside of endocytosis. We have discovered that the subcellular distribution of a clathrin cysteine mutant we previously studied is altered and a proportion is also localized to nuclear spaces. MALS shows C1573A hub is a mixture of trimer-like and detrimerized molecules. The X-ray structure of the trimerization domain reveals that without light chains, a helix harboring cysteine-1573 is reoriented. We propose clathrin has a detrimerization switch, which suggests clathrin topology can be altered naturally for new functions.

Replacement of charged and polar residues in the coiled-coiled interface of huntingtin-interacting protein 1 (HIP1) causes aggregation and cell death.

HIP1 crystal structures solved in our laboratory revealed abnormalities in the coiled-coil region, suggesting intrinsic plasticity. To test this, specific amino acids in the coiled-coil were mutated. The apparent thermal stability of HIP1 was altered when Thr528 and Glu531 were replaced by leucine, and was enhanced when Lys510 was also mutated. In cells, HIP1 mutant expression produced aggregation. MTS and flow cytometry indicate a correlation between aggregated HIP1 and enhanced cell death. These data support the idea that flexibility of the HIP1 coiled-coil domain is important for normal function and may lead to new insights into Huntington's disease.

Conformation switching of clathrin light chain regulates clathrin lattice assembly.

Clathrin-coated vesicle formation is responsible for membrane traffic to and from the endocytic pathway during receptor-mediated endocytosis and organelle biogenesis, influencing how cells relate to their environment. Generating these vesicles involves self-assembly of clathrin molecules into a latticed coat on membranes that recruits receptors and organizes protein machinery necessary for budding. Here we define a molecular mechanism regulating clathrin lattice formation by obtaining structural information from co-crystals of clathrin subunits. Low resolution X-ray diffraction data (7.9-9.0 A) was analyzed using a combination of molecular replacement with an energy-minimized model and noncrystallographic symmetry averaging. Resulting topological information revealed two conformations of the regulatory clathrin light chain bound to clathrin heavy chain. Based on protein domain positions, mutagenesis, and biochemical assays, we identify an electrostatic interaction between the clathrin subunits that allows the observed conformational variation in clathrin light chains to alter the conformation of the clathrin heavy chain and thereby regulates assembly.

Two Distantly Spaced Basic Patches in the Flexible Domain of Huntingtin-Interacting Protein 1 (HIP1) Are Essential for the Binding of Clathrin Light Chain.

The interaction between HIP family proteins (HIP1 and HIP12/1R) and clathrin is fundamental to endocytosis. We used circular dichroism (CD) to study the stability of an HIP1 subfragment (aa468-530) that is splayed open. CD thermal melts show HIP1 468-530 is only stable at low temperatures, but this HIP1 fragment contains a structural unit that does not melt out even at 83°C. We then created HIP1 mutants to probe our hypothesis that a short hydrophobic path in the opened region is the binding site for clathrin light chain. We found that the binding of hub/LCb was sensitive to mutating two distantly separated basic residues (K474 and K494). The basic patches marked by K474 and K494 are conserved in HIP12/1R. The lack of conservation in sla2p (S. cerevisiae), HIP1 from D. melanogaster, and HIP1 homolog ZK370.3 from C. elegans implies the binding of HIP1 and HIP1 homologs to clathrin light chain may be different in these organisms.

Crystal structure at 2.8 A of Huntingtin-interacting protein 1 (HIP1) coiled-coil domain reveals a charged surface suitable for HIP1 protein interactor (HIPPI).

Huntington's disease is a genetic neurological disorder that is triggered by the dissociation of the huntingtin protein (htt) from its obligate interaction partner Huntingtin-interacting protein 1 (HIP1). The release of the huntingtin protein permits HIP1 protein interactor (HIPPI) to bind to its recognition site on HIP1 to form a HIPPI/HIP1 complex that recruits procaspase-8 to begin the process of apoptosis. The interaction module between HIPPI and HIP1 was predicted to resemble a death-effector domain. Our 2.8-A crystal structure of the HIP1 371-481 subfragment that includes F432 and K474, which is important for HIPPI binding, is not a death-effector domain but is a partially opened coiled coil. The HIP1 371-481 model reveals a basic surface that we hypothesize to be suitable for binding HIPPI. There is an opened region next to the putative HIPPI site that is highly negatively charged. The acidic residues in this region are highly conserved in HIP1 and a related protein, HIP1R, from different organisms but are not conserved in the yeast homologue of HIP1, sla2p. We have modeled approximately 85% of the coiled-coil domain by joining our new HIP1 371-481 structure to the HIP1 482-586 model (Protein Data Bank code: 2NO2). Finally, the middle of this coiled-coil domain may be intrinsically flexible and suggests a new interaction model where HIPPI binds to a U-shaped HIP1 molecule.

Light chain C-terminal region reinforces the stability of clathrin heavy chain trimers.

The self-assembly of clathrin into lattices relies on the ability of heavy chain legs to form a three-legged pinwheel structure. We investigated the role of light chains in clathrin trimerization by challenging recombinant hub (plus and minus light chain) with an anionic detergent. The binding of light chain increases the amount of detergent needed to induce detrimerization, suggesting light chains reinforced hub trimers. We also show that light chain C-terminal residues are important for enhancing the in vitro assembly of hub at low pH. We assessed how much the C-terminus of light chain contributed to the stability of the trimerization domain by adding full-length and truncated light chains to trimer-defective hub mutants, C1573S and C1573A. Adding full-length LCb to C1573S caused some retrimerization, but little activity was restored, suggesting the majority of oligomeric C1573S was nonnative. A larger percentage of monomeric C1573A could be retrimerized into an assembly-competent form by adding intact LCb. We also discovered that C-terminally deleted light chains produced a heterogeneous population of hubs that were smaller than native hubs, but were assembly active. We propose a model showing how light chains reinforce the puckered clathrin triskelion. Finally, the ability of light chains to retrimerize C1573A hub suggests that the structural role of light chain may be conserved in yeast and mammals.

Crystal structure at 2.8 A of the DLLRKN-containing coiled-coil domain of huntingtin-interacting protein 1 (HIP1) reveals a surface suitable for clathrin light chain binding.

Huntingtin interacting protein 1 (HIP1) is a member of a family of proteins whose interaction with Huntingtin is critical to prevent cells from initiating apoptosis. HIP1, and related protein HIP12/1R, can also bind to clathrin and membrane phospholipids, and HIP12/1R links the CCV to the actin cytoskeleton. HIP1 and HIP12/1R interact with the clathrin light chain EED regulatory site and stimulate clathrin lattice assembly. Here, we report the X-ray structure of the coiled-coil domain of HIP1 (residues 482-586) that includes residues crucial for binding clathrin light chain. The dimeric HIP1 crystal structure is partially splayed open. The comparison of the HIP1 model with coiled-coil predictions revealed the heptad repeat in the dimeric trunk (S2 path) is offset relative to the register of the heptad repeat from the N-terminal portion (S1 path) of the molecule. Furthermore, surface analysis showed there is a third hydrophobic path (S3) running parallel with S1 and S2. We present structural evidence supporting a role for the S3 path as an interaction surface for clathrin light chain. Finally, comparative analysis suggests the mode of binding between sla2p and clathrin light chain may be different in yeast.

Structure of a novel photoreceptor, the BLUF domain of AppA from Rhodobacter sphaeroides.

The flavin-binding BLUF domain of AppA represents a new class of blue light photoreceptors that are present in a number of bacterial and algal species. The dark state X-ray structure of this domain was determined at 2.3 A resolution. The domain demonstrates a new function for the common ferredoxin-like fold; two long alpha-helices flank the flavin, which is bound with its isoalloxazine ring perpendicular to a five-stranded beta-sheet. The hydrogen bond network and the overall protein topology of the BLUF domain (but not its sequence) bear some resemblance to LOV domains, a subset of PAS domains widely involved in signaling. Nearly all residues conserved in BLUF domains surround the flavin chromophore, many of which are involved in an intricate hydrogen bond network. Photoactivation may induce a rearrangement in this network via reorientation of the Gln63 side chain to form a new hydrogen bond to the flavin O4 position. This shift would also break a hydrogen bond to the Trp104 side chain, which may be critical in induction of global structural change in AppA.

Contribution of cysteines to clathrin trimerization domain stability and mapping of light chain binding.

The three-legged or triskelion shape of clathrin is critical for the formation of polyhedral lattices around clathrin-coated vesicles. Filamentous legs radiate from a common vertex, with amino acids 1550-1615 contributed by each leg to define the trimerization domain (Liu S-H, Wong ML, Craik CS, Brodsky FM. Cell 1995; 83: 257-267). Within this amino acid stretch there are 3 cysteines at positions 1565, 1569 and 1573 which are completely conserved in higher mammals from humans to C. elegans. The cysteine-to-serine mutation at position 1573 was observed to have the largest impact on clathrin structure and self-assembly. We have also found that Cysteine 1528 located near the boundary between the proximal region and trimerization domain mediated the formation of nonproductive clathrin aggregates when bound light chain subunits were removed. However, when light chains were added back, the ability of this cysteine to form disulfide bridges between individual clathrin molecules was blocked, suggesting bound light chain interacted with Cysteine 1528 to prevent aggregation. This new information serves to map the orientation of the light chain subunit in the vicinity of the trimerization domain and supports previous models that indicate involvement of the trimerization domain in LC binding (Chen C-Y, Reese ML, Hwang PK, Ota N, Agard D, Brodsky FM. EMBO J 2002; 21: 6072-6082; Pishvaee B, Munn A, Payne GS. EMBO J 1997; 16: 2227-2239).