Clinico-epidemiological profile and predictors of severe illness in young infants (0-59 days) in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Young infant mortality has remained high and relatively unchanged compared with deaths of older infants. Strategies to reduce infant mortality, however, are mostly targeted at the older child. OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical profile of sick young infants presenting to a hospital and to define important signs and symptoms that will enable health workers to detect young infants with severe illness requiring hospital admission. METHODS: Young infants aged 0-59 days presenting to a paediatric out-patient clinic were evaluated by a nurse using a standardised list of signs and symptoms. A paediatrician independently evaluated these children and decided whether they needed hospitalisation. RESULTS: A total of 685 young infants were enrolled, 22% of whom were <7 days of age. The commonest reasons for seeking care were jaundice in the 0-6-day group, skin problems in the 7-27-day group and cough in the 28-59-day group. The primary clinical diagnoses for admissions were sepsis in the 0-6- and 7-27-day groups and pneumonia in the 28-59-day group. Clinical signs and symptoms predicting severe illness requiring admission were general (history of fever, difficult feeding, not feeding well and temperature >37.5 degrees C) and respiratory (respiratory rate > or =60/min, severe chest in-drawing). CONCLUSION: General and respiratory signs are important predictors for severe illness in young infants. Training peripheral health workers to recognise these signs and to refer to hospital for further assessment and management might have a significant impact on young infant mortality.

Vitamin A supplementation increases ratios of proinflammatory to anti-inflammatory cytokine responses in pregnancy and lactation.

Vitamin A supplementation reduces child mortality in populations at risk of vitamin A deficiency and may also reduce maternal mortality. One possible explanation for this is that vitamin A deficiency is associated with altered immune function and cytokine dysregulation. Vitamin A deficiency in pregnancy may thus compound the pregnancy-associated bias of cellular immune responses towards Th-2-like responses and exacerbate susceptibility to intracellular pathogens. We assessed mitogen and antigen-induced cytokine responses during pregnancy and lactation in Ghanaian primigravidae receiving either vitamin A supplementation or placebo. This was a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of weekly vitamin A supplementation in pregnant and lactating women. Pregnancy compared to postpartum was associated with a suppression of cytokine responses, in particular of the proinflammatory cytokines interferon (IFN)-gamma and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Mitogen-induced TNF-alpha responses were associated with a decreased risk of peripheral parasitaemia during pregnancy. Furthermore, vitamin A supplementation was significantly associated with an increased ratio of mitogen-induced proinflammatory cytokine (IFN-gamma) to anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) during pregnancy and in the postpartum period. The results of this study indicate that suppression of proinflammatory type 1 immune responses and hence immunity to intracellular infections, resulting from the combined effects of pregnancy and vitamin A deficiency, might be ameliorated by vitamin A supplementation.

Age, temperature, and parasitaemia predict chloroquine treatment failure and anaemia in children with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

The prevalence of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria has been increasing in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South America over the last 2 decades, and has been associated with increased anaemia-associated morbidity and higher mortality rates. Prospectively collected clinical and parasitological data from a multicentre study of 788 children aged 6-59 months with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria were analysed in order to identify risk factors for chloroquine treatment failure and to assess its impact on anaemia after therapy. The proportion of chloroquine treatment failures (combined early and late treatment failures) was higher in the central-eastern African countries (Tanzania, 53%; Uganda, 80%; Zambia, 57%) and Ecuador (54%) than in Ghana (36%). Using logistic regression, predictors of early treatment failure included younger age, higher baseline temperature, and greater levels of parasitaemia. We conclude that younger age, higher initial temperature, and higher baseline parasitaemia predict early treatment failure and a higher probability of worsening anaemia between admission and days 7 or 14 post-treatment.

Holding up a mirror: changing obstetric practice through criterion-based clinical audit in developing countries.

The objective of the study described is to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of using a criterion-based clinical audit to measure and improve the quality of obstetric care at the district hospital level in developing countries. The focus is on the management of five life-threatening obstetric complications--hemorrhage, eclampsia, genital tract infection, obstructed labor and uterine rupture was audited using a "before and after" design. The five steps of the audit cycle were followed: establish criteria of good quality care; measure current practice (Review I); feedback findings and set targets; take action to change practice; and re-evaluate practice (Review II). Systematic literature review, panel discussions and pilot work led to the development of 31 audit criteria. Review I included 555 life-threatening complications occurring over 66 hospital-months; Review II included 342 complications over 42 hospital-months. Many common areas for improvement were identified across the four hospitals. Agreed mechanisms for achieving these improvements included clinical protocols, reviews of staffing, and training workshops. Some aspects of clinical monitoring, drug use and record keeping improved significantly between Reviews I and II. Criterion-based clinical audit in four typical district hospitals in Ghana and Jamaica is a feasible and acceptable method for quality assurance and appears to have improved the management of life-threatening obstetric complications.

Impact of prepackaging antimalarial drugs on cost to patients and compliance with treatment.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the extent to which district health teams could reduce the burden of malaria, a continuing major cause of mortality and morbidity, in a situation where severe resource constraints existed and integrated care was provided. METHODS: Antimalarial drugs were prepackaged into unit doses in an attempt to improve compliance with full courses of chemotherapy. FINDINGS: Compliance improved by approximately 20% in both adults and children. There were 50% reductions in cost to patients, waiting time at dispensaries and drug wastage at facilities. The intervention, which tended to improve both case and drug management at facilities, was well accepted by health staff and did not involve them in additional working time. CONCLUSION: The prepackaging of antimalarials at the district level offers the prospect of improved compliance and a reduction in the spread of resistance.