Attachment Theory and Sexual Offending: Making the Connection.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this review is to discuss how attachment theory can be applied to explain sexual violence. Specifically, it discusses how the development of certain risk factors contributes to these behaviors and how attachment-based models can be used to address this issue through prevention and therapeutic interventions. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent research demonstrates that individuals who commit sexual offenses have higher rates of insecure attachment styles and that these styles are associated with a number of criminogenic risk factors associated with sexual offending. Such risk factors include cognitive processing difficulties, affect dysregulation, and challenges in interpersonal relationships, among others. Fortunately, treatment interventions have been shown to foster more secure attachment styles and reduce these risk factors. Attachment theory is a viable theory to both understand and intervene with those who have committed sexual violence to reduce the risk factors associated with sexual violence.

Developing a trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy application for adolescents with problematic sexual behaviors: A conceptual framework.

Sexual abuse (SA) perpetration is a significant public health problem; SA perpetration is most likely to emerge during adolescence and youth ages 13 to 17 account for a significant portion of all child sexual abuse. While research shows that these youth have high rates of adversity, once they have engaged in problem sexual behavior (PSB), their own trauma histories are often ignored with treatment primarily focused on reducing risk for reoffending. Although sexual re-offense rates among adolescents with PSB are very low, the rates of non-sexual recidivism are considerably higher; with almost half of known youth have reoffended non-sexually, requiring development, implementation, and testing of therapeutic interventions responsive to the indicated risks and unmet needs of adolescents who have engaged in a range of problematic sexual behaviors (PSB-A) and their families. Yet, there are no empirically supported interventions designed specifically to address PSB-A with trauma histories. This article introduces how Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy can be applied to PSB-A and provides implications for practice and future research.

Examining the Post-High School Effects of a Primary Prevention Program on Exposure to Bullying and Sexual Violence among Emerging Adults.

Emerging adulthood (EA) is a time of self-exploration as new opportunities for independence and autonomy arise. Yet, for some youth, this may also contribute to instability, uncertainty, and anxiety. Consequently, evidence suggests that rates of exposure to various forms of violence increase in EA. This study examined changes in experiences of bullying and sexual violence (SV) victimization among a sample of post-high school emerging adults who were exposed to a primary prevention program, Sources of Strength (Sources). We also examined whether Sources skills (e.g., healthy coping and help-seeking) buffer against these experiences. Participants were 102 emerging adults (73.5% identifying as female, 36.3% as Latinx, and 22.6% as LGBQ), who completed surveys at three time points: 1 month prior to graduation and at 6- and 12-months post-graduation. Results suggest that as youth transition into emerging adulthood, experiences of bullying victimization were relatively low and slightly decreased whereas experiences of SV were also relatively low, but stable over time. Notably, bullying victimization was lower when female-identifying participants, relative to males, had higher levels of healthy coping. In addition, SV victimization for participants identifying as non-white was higher at lower levels of coping than those identifying as white; however, at higher levels of coping, non-white participants reported lower rates of SV victimization, while rates were relatively stable for white participants at high and low levels of coping. These findings provide some support for the Sources program model where engaging in healthy coping may protect young women from bullying exposure and buffer against SV victimization for racial and ethnic minoritized young adults. Implications for violence prevention are discussed.

Positive Caregiving Styles Attenuating Effects of Cumulative Trauma Among Youth Who Commit Sexual Crimes.

Among youth who commit sexual crimes, childhood trauma experiences have been linked to a host of outcomes including trauma symptom expression. Furthermore, research has begun assessing differential rates of cumulative adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) between youth who commit sexual and non-sexual crimes. Yet, few studies have comparatively examined rates of cumulative traumatic events using more robust measures of adversity. There is scant research on outcomes associated cumulative trauma among youth who commit sexual crimes including linkages to trauma symptoms and how positive parenting styles (PCSs) can attenuate in this relationship. This study aims to compare cumulative trauma experiences between youth who commit sexual (n = 112) and non-sexual crimes (n = 224). Among youth who commit sexual crimes, we test how PCSs mitigate or moderate the effects of cumulative trauma on trauma symptoms. Results from independent samples t-tests revealed significant group differences on singular and cumulative traumatic experiences, and trauma symptomatology, where youth who commit sexual crimes had higher rates of all. Stepwise linear regressions revealed mitigating effects of maternal PCSs and tests of moderation revealed main and interaction effects, where intermediate positive maternal caregiving styles for youth with higher cumulative trauma were associated with greater trauma symptomatology. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Trauma and Maternal Caregivers as Risks for Executive Function Deficits Among Youth Who Have Sexually Harmed.

Despite robust research linking trauma events to the commission of sexual harm by youth, the majority of victims do not become victimizers, imploring us to study potential interceding influences. Some research indicates that intermediary factors like attachment characteristics, trauma symptomatology, and executive functioning may be critical in understanding sexual harm committed by youth. This study explored relationships between trauma events, trauma symptoms, and attachment characteristics, and their relationship to executive functioning in a sample of 196 youth who committed sexual harm. Results revealed bivariate associations between trauma events, symptomatology, and maternal attachment characteristics. Structural equation modeling revealed numerous direct and indirect effects on the path to deficits in executive functioning, and that sexual abuse, above and beyond other forms of traumatic events, contributed to executive functioning deficits via trauma symptoms. The results are contextualized and implications are discussed.

Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress and Sexual Concerns: The Intermediary Effects of Executive Functioning on Profiles of Youth Who Have Sexually Harmed.

There are demonstrated links in the general population between developmental adversity, associated trauma symptoms, and executive functioning difficulties in children and youth. However, research on links among these indicators and their relationship to antisocial behavior more broadly in samples of youth who have sexually harmed is only beginning to emerge. Some research indicates that intermediary factors like sexual concerns may be critical in understanding this population. This study explored relationships between trauma symptoms, sexual concerns, executive functioning, and their relationship to non-sexual delinquency in a sample of 196 youth who committed sexual harm. Structural equation modeling revealed numerous direct and indirect effects on the path to delinquency and that executive functioning plays a key role among those with serious sexual concerns. The results are contextualized and implications are discussed.

Childhood Maltreatment Experiences, Attachment, Sexual Offending: Testing a Theory.

The aim of this study was to empirically examine the theoretical model proposed by Grady, Levenson, and Bolder used to explain the relationships between experiencing trauma, attachment styles, and risk factors associated with sexual offending. The specific risk factors tested were emotional, behavioral, and cognitive regulation deficits. The research questions were as follows: (1) What specific childhood traumatic experiences (physical and sexual abuse and/or other domestic trauma events) are associated with anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachments? (2) Are anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles differentially linked to dysregulation outcomes (emotional, behavioral and cognitive shift, and inhibitions)? (3) Do insecure attachment styles explain why childhood trauma is associated with dysregulation? and (4) Do these early life experiences contribute to sexual offending behavior? The sample included 200 male youth adjudicated for either a sexual or nonsexual crime and living in the community or a residential facility. The average age of the youth was 17.17 years (SD = 1.81 years). Structural equation modeling was used to determine the direct and indirect relationships between abuse and traumatic experiences, anxious-avoidant and ambivalent-anxious attachment styles, and regulation deficits. Authors found a direct relationship between physical abuse and both of the attachment styles, separately. Both anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles related similarly to regulation deficits. Separately, anxious-ambivalent and anxious-avoidant attachment styles served as mediators between physical abuse and regulation deficits. Sexual abuse predicted the later commission of sexual crimes with no influence from attachment style. Finally, domestic trauma independently predicted regulation deficits in the model that included anxious-ambivalent attachment but had no effect on deficits in the model that included anxious-avoidant attachment. Implications for treatment include the need to consider using attachment-based interventions and prevention strategies, and a trauma-informed approach when working with justice involved youth. Suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Qualitative Process Evaluation of Rural Schools: Uptake of Change Processes and Contextual Factors Influencing Implementation Within a Primary Prevention Program for Youth.

Sexual violence (SV), homophobic name-calling, and bullying commonly occur in school settings. As such, comprehensive school-based violence prevention strategies are needed. Recent calls in prevention science argue that investigations of preventive interventions must move beyond simply testing if programs work; rather, they must also examine how interventions work. The purpose of this study was to explore the differential uptake of salient change mechanisms of a school-based primary prevention program, Sources of Strength (Sources) in rural schools, and examine contextual factors that may influence implementation outcomes in rural contexts. As a supplement to a randomized controlled trial of Sources in 20 high schools in Colorado, the present project utilized a rigorous qualitative design to conduct staff focus groups and student interviews within four schools (two intervention and two waitlist schools) that participated in the RCT. Results suggest variability in uptake of Sources key processes (expansion of networks to build connections, school-wide activities, and staff support) in intervention schools. While these were indicated as non-formalized processes in waitlist schools, there was also variability in these reports. Furthermore, results revealed specific contextual factors including cultural norms, degree of rurality, and school-level buy-in/investment that impacted implementation outcomes for intervention and waitlist schools (e.g., pre-implementation readiness). Implications are discussed around alignment of a school's policies, procedures, and values with the preventative intervention in effort to support strong implementation.

Criminogenic Needs as Intervening Factors in the Relation Between Insecure Attachments and Youth Sexual Violence.

There is a strong theoretical and research base demonstrating the link between attachment styles and adolescent sexual offending. However, this relationship may be best explained by deficit-based mediational pathways including criminogenic needs such as emotional or affect regulation and callousness. Grady, Levenson, and Bolder propose a framework that details criminogenic needs as intermediary variables in the attachment-sexual offending relationship. Using data on adolescents adjudicated of sexual and nonsexual crimes in a Western state (N = 200), two structural equation models (SEM) tested direct and indirect relationships between ambivalent and avoidant attachment styles (in separate models), dysregulation including cognitive and behavioral transitions, emotional control, and inhibited/impulsive behaviors, callousness, delinquency, and offending type (sexual or nonsexual offending). Results revealed statistically significant direct pathways between variables of interest and a multimediational effect of dysregulation and callousness in the relationship between insecure attachments and sexual offending. Treatment, policy, and research implications are discussed.

Victimization Experiences and Executive Dysfunction as Discriminating Risk Indicators for Youth Offender Typologies.

Research is becoming increasingly nuanced in its examination of offenders, and thus typological distinctions according to generalist and/or specialization offense profiles may be notable for targeted intervention efforts within and between classifications of offenders. There is a significant body of evidence identifying early-life victimization and executive function deficits as critical developmental antecedents to sexual and non-sexual offending alike, but they have not been exhaustively evaluated as a discernable experience among criminally versatile offenders (youth who commit both sexual and non-sexual crimes). This study aims to address gaps by examining associations between early-life victimization, other traumatic experiences in the home, and executive functioning deficits and then test how disparate offending groups differentially experience these early risks. Using a sample of juvenile-justice-involved youth (N = 200), who committed sexual only offenses (n = 41), non-sexual only offenses (n = 124), and criminally versatile offenders (n = 27), multivariate analysis of variance tests and bivariate correlations were conducted. Results revealed that there were statistically significant correlations between measures of executive functioning and specific incidents of victimization, particularly sexual, physical, and emotional. There were also significant group differences in measures of sexual abuse, physical and emotional abuse, and executive functioning with criminally versatile offenders showing higher rates of physical and emotional abuse and sexual only offenders showing higher rates of sexual abuse and some executive functioning deficits. Practice and research implications are discussed.

Relationships between Early Life Victimization, Antisocial Traits, and Sexual Violence: Executive Functioning as a Mediator.

Few research studies examine how the relationship between trauma and executive functioning can influence sexual violence among youth. Knight and Sims-Knight (2004) proposed a Developmental Etiological Theory (DET) connecting early life physical and sexual victimization to sexual violence via antisocial traits. Drawing from research that identifies a link between early life victimization and executive functioning, this study tests an adaptation to the DET by including executive functioning as an intervening factor. Using data on adolescents adjudicated of sexual and non-sexual crimes in a western state (N = 200), multiple structural equation models tested direct and indirect relationships between early life sexual, physical victimization, and other adversity, four differential forms of executive functioning, callousness, and sexual violence. Results revealed statistically significant direct pathways between variables of interest and a multi-meditational effect of certain forms of executive functioning and callousness in the relationship between victimization and sexual violence. Treatment and research implications are discussed.

Intra- and Extra-Familial Victimization Experiences: Differentiating Between Incarcerated Serious Youth Offenders and Youth Rapists.

Although research is becoming increasingly nuanced by exploring differential risk factors linked with types of youth offenders, typological distinctions have rarely been made between youth rapists and other serious youth offenders. This study tests the relative effects of intra- and extra-familial victimization-while holding other theoretically driven variables constant-on membership in three mutually exclusive youth offending groups: non-serious non-sexual offenders (n = 4,013), serious non-sexual offenders (n = 2,571), and rapists (n = 489). Data were drawn from the Survey of Youth in Residential Placement (SYRP). Incarcerated youth (N = 7,073) were surveyed on multiple constructs. Using appropriate weights in analyses, a multinomial logistic regression (referencing serious offenders) revealed youth who were victims of intra-familial physical abuse (22%) and intra-familial forced sex (42%) had a decreased risk of being in the non-serious offender category relative to the serious offender category. Furthermore, intra-familial emotional abuse (75%) and intra-familial forced sex (202%) demonstrated an increased risk of being in the rapist category relative to serious offender category. Although extra-familial victimization was statistically significant, victimization within the family had larger effects when predicting rape group membership. The research and practice implications are discussed.

Maternal Caregiving Practices and Child Abuse Experiences as Developmental Antecedents to Insecure Attachments: Differential Pathways Between Adolescents Who Commit Sexual and Non-Sexual Crimes.

Grady, Levenson, and Bolder's etiological framework contextualizes sexual offending behaviors through a trauma and attachment lens to suggest child abuse experiences (CAE) are associated with attachment problems that contribute to sexual offending. To empirically test a portion of this theory, this cross-sectional study employed a structural equation mediated-moderated model on a sample of juvenile justice-involved youth (N = 505) who committed sexual (n = 355) and non-sexual (n = 150) offenses. Results revealed a good model fit and statistically significant direct effects between maternal harsh and indifferent caregiving styles and insecure attachment. However, CEAs did not mediate the relationship between caregiving styles and insecure attachment. Results also revealed a moderation effect whereby youth who commit sexual crimes who report harsher and more indifferent maternal caregiving styles were more likely to have higher CAEs relative to youth who commit non-sexual crimes. Implications are discussed using a public health perspective of prevention.

Parental and Peer Attachment Characteristics: Differentiating Between Youth Sexual and Non-Sexual Offenders and Associations With Sexual Offense Profiles.

Attachment deficits have been suggested as an etiological explanation underlying the development of sexually abusive behaviors and general delinquency among youth. Yet, few researchers have explored the discriminating functions of attachment characteristics or investigated attachments as a stand-alone risk/protective factor explaining offending profiles among youth sexual offenders. This article explored the differences in characteristics of parental and peer attachments between youth sexual ( n = 355) and non-sexual offenders ( n = 150). Furthermore, associations between family and peer attachments and criminal profiles of sexual offenders were tested. The t-test results revealed that the groups of youth differed on various mother and father attachment characteristics, with youth sexual offenders exhibiting greater deficits. Regression models revealed lower levels of mother and peer trust and communication were associated with more severe sexual offenses; low levels of mother trust were associated with more victims; and low levels of mother trust and high father alienation were associated with more non-sexual criminality. Practice implications suggest the need to amalgamate families more consistently into treatment and addressing peer dynamics within groups and community contexts.

Associations Between Substance Use in Commission of Sexual Crimes and Offense Characteristics Among Youth: Mitigating Effects of Substance Use Treatment.

The small extant research base on substance use and youth sexual offending has very few descriptive details. Furthermore, research has yet to test associations between the use of substances in the commission of sexual crimes and offense-related characteristics and how substance use treatment can mitigate these effects. In a sample of residentially housed youth adjudicated of a sexual crime ( N = 332), prevalence patterns are broken down by type of substance use behavior. Sequential regression models are run to test the associations between substance use prior to a sexual crime and number of victims, sexual deviance, and non-sexual criminality. Substance use treatment is tested as a mitigating factor in these relationships. Results reveal high levels of family substance use, and high rates of alcohol, marijuana, and other substance use. There were associations between substance use prior to sexual criminality and sexual deviance and non-sexual criminality. Substance use treatment reduced the effects of substance use on non-sexual criminality. Research and treatment implications are offered.

Family Experiences and Sexual Victimization Histories: A Comparative Analysis Between Youth Sexual and Nonsexual Offenders.

Youth who commit sexual offenses often have sexual victimization histories that occur in the family context. These victimization experiences can be exacerbated by other risks present in the family environment. This research study uses MANOVAs to explore how family environments including substance use, mental health, physical and emotional victimization experiences, attachment, and parenting styles differentiate subgroups of youth offenders including youth sexual offenders with ( n = 179) and without ( n = 176) sexual victimization histories, and nonsexual offenders without sexual victimization histories ( n = 150). Results reveal that youth sexual offenders with sexual victimization histories had greater risks in family environments relative to youth sexual and nonsexual offenders without sexual victimization histories. Treatment and research implications are discussed.

Effects of School-Based Risk and Protective Factors on Treatment Success Among Youth Adjudicated of a Sexual Crime.

Youth with sexually problematic behaviors are impacted by the reciprocal interplay between individual characteristics and the key social and ecological systems in which they are embedded. The paucity of research on protective factors mitigating risks within various socioecological systems is of concern, as the school is one such system that has been overlooked. This study retroactively investigated probation files among youth who were adjudicated of a sexual crime (N = 85) to determine how school-level variables are associated with treatment completion. A sequential logistical regression model revealed reduced odds for school-based risk factors and a greater proportion of variance explained when school-based protective factors were included. Implications and research considerations are discussed.

Executive Dysfunction Predicts Delinquency But Not Characteristics of Sexual Aggression Among Adolescent Sexual Offenders.

Our aim in this study was to evaluate executive function and its relationship to delinquency and sexual crime in adolescents incarcerated for sexual crimes. Based on self-report data, 196 male adolescent sexual offenders from a Midwest state reported high rates of executive dysfunction. Although such deficits did not relate to the number of victims of sexual abuse, severity, or degree of force used in commission of the sexual crimes, poor executive function was significantly predictive of both general delinquency and felony theft. In both measures of delinquent conduct, behavioral regulation dysfunction was predictive of the frequency of commission of the crimes, whereas metacognition was not. Research and treatment implications are offered.

The Influence of Living Situations on Family Therapy Involvement Among Youth Adjudicated of a Sexual Crime.

Clinical and research professionals working with youth who have sexually offended have increasingly advocated for community-based care. However, other scholars have noted the appropriateness of residential placements for many youth. Research is inconclusive concerning the degree to which youth with sexually harmful behaviors receive family services, particularly family therapy in either community-based care settings or residential settings, and has yet to thoroughly identify how placement influences family therapy involvement. This study reviews the files of youth who have been adjudicated of a sexual crime (N = 85) to quantitatively identify how living situations influence family therapy involvement. Using bivariate estimations, findings reveal that youth living out of the home and those who change placements were more involved in family therapy than those treated in their own communities or homes. Implications and future research directions are considered.

Service approaches for youths who commit sexual crimes: a call for family-oriented models.

Sexual crimes committed by youths are a major social concern. Currently, adult-based models of service delivery are applied to juveniles with very little evidence to support treatment effectiveness. With prevailing limitations to these approaches, consideration of methods for improving services to youths is warranted. Adapting traditional treatment approaches to incorporate family-oriented models of service delivery is likely to improve youth and family outcomes. The goal of this article is twofold: (1) to review the state of the evidence of current treatments for sexually abusive youths, identifying gaps in services and research, and (2) to suggest service improvements by incorporating family treatment approaches and reviewing the extant evidence for existing family-oriented models.