Design, synthesis, and in vivo activity of novel inhibitors of delta-5 desaturase for the treatment of metabolic syndrome.

The synthesis, SAR, and in vivo activity of inhibitors of delta-5 desaturase are described. Ring-constraint of the initial series provided access to a variety of in vitro active chemotypes, from which the indazole was selected. Examples from the indazole series displayed in vivo activity in reducing the enzymatic activity of liver delta-5 desaturase.

Novel inhibitors of the high-affinity L-proline transporter as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of cognitive disorders.

The incidence of cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease continues to increase unabated. While cures for such diseases have eluded investigators, progress is being made on alleviating certain symptoms of these diseases. Mouse knockouts of the proline transporter (PROT), a high affinity Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporter, indicated its potential as a novel therapeutic target for cognition improvement. Herein we report our investigation into a novel class of PROT inhibitors.

Identification of small molecules that selectively inhibit diacylglycerol lipase-α activity.

Recent genetic evidence suggests that the diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL-α) isoform is the major biosynthetic enzyme for the most abundant endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), in the central nervous system. Revelation of its essential role in regulating retrograde synaptic plasticity and adult neurogenesis has made it an attractive therapeutic target. Therefore, it has become apparent that selective inhibition of DAGL-α enzyme activity with a small molecule could be a strategy for the development of novel therapies for the treatment of disease indications such as depression, anxiety, pain, and cognition. In this report, the authors present the identification of small-molecule inhibitor chemotypes of DAGL-α, which were selective (≥10-fold) against two other lipases, pancreatic lipase and monoacylglycerol lipase, via high-throughput screening of a diverse compound collection. Seven chemotypes of interest from a list of 185 structural clusters, which included 132 singletons, were initially selected for evaluation and characterization. Selection was based on potency, selectivity, and chemical tractability. One of the chemotypes, the glycine sulfonamide series, was prioritized as an initial lead for further medicinal chemistry optimization.

Molecular characterization and identification of surrogate substrates for diacylglycerol lipase α.

Diacylglycerol lipase α is the key enzyme in the formation of the most prevalent endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol in the brain. In this study we identified the catalytic triad of diacylglycerol lipase α, consisting of serine 472, aspartate 524 and histidine 650. A truncated version of diacylglycerol lipase α, spanning residues 1-687 retains complete catalytic activity suggesting that the C-terminal domain is not required for catalysis. We also report the discovery and the characterization of fluorogenic and chromogenic substrates for diacylglycerol lipase α. Assays performed with these substrates demonstrate equipotent inhibition of diacylglycerol lipase α by tetrahydrolipastatin and RHC-20867 as compared to reactions performed with the native diacylglycerol substrate. Thus, confirming the utility of assays using these substrates for identification and kinetic characterization of inhibitors from pharmaceutical collections.

Novel potent inhibitors of deoxycytidine kinase identified and compared by multiple assays.

Deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) phosphorylates deoxycytidine, deoxyguanosine, and deoxyadenosine and plays an important role in the salvage pathway of nucleoside metabolism. dCK is also required for the phosphorylation of several antiviral and anticancer nucleoside drugs, with resistance to these agents often being associated with a loss or decrease in dCK activity. Data also indicate a role for dCK in immune function, and dCK inhibitors may provide treatment for immune disorders. To identify novel dCK inhibitors, the authors evaluated 2 existing biochemical assays, adapted both to high-throughput screening, and identified several series of hits. They also compared the potency of the hits between purified recombinant and endogenous enzyme. Meanwhile, they also developed a novel cell-based assay that rests on the rescue of cells from dCK-dependent cytotoxic agents such as AraC. A large number of compounds were tested using the 3 assays, and a strong correlation in potency was observed between the biochemical assay using endogenous enzyme and the cell-based assay. The hits identified in these screens have proved to be good starting points for the synthesis of much more potent tool compounds to further investigate the physiological functions of dCK and potentially lead to the development of therapeutic agents.

5-Fluorocytosine derivatives as inhibitors of deoxycytidine kinase.

A series of potent piperidine-linked cytosine derivatives were prepared as inhibitors of deoxycytidine kinase (dCK). Compound 9h was discovered to be a potent inhibitor of dCK and shows a good combination of cellular potency and pharmacokinetic parameters. Compound 9h blocks the incorporation of radiolabeled cytosine into mouse T-cells in vitro, as well as in vivo in mice following a T-cell challenge.

Lead optimization and structure-based design of potent and bioavailable deoxycytidine kinase inhibitors.

A series of deoxycytidine kinase inhibitors was simultaneously optimized for potency and PK properties. A co-crystal structure then allowed merging this series with a high throughput screening hit to afford a highly potent, selective and orally bioavailable inhibitor, compound 10. This compound showed dose dependent inhibition of deoxycytidine kinase in vivo.

Identification of a new functional domain in angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3) and angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) involved in binding and inhibition of lipoprotein lipase (LPL).

Angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3) and angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) are secreted proteins that regulate triglyceride (TG) metabolism in part by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase (LPL). Recently, we showed that treatment of wild-type mice with monoclonal antibody (mAb) 14D12, specific for ANGPTL4, recapitulated the Angptl4 knock-out (-/-) mouse phenotype of reduced serum TG levels. In the present study, we mapped the region of mouse ANGPTL4 recognized by mAb 14D12 to amino acids Gln(29)-His(53), which we designate as specific epitope 1 (SE1). The 14D12 mAb prevented binding of ANGPTL4 with LPL, consistent with its ability to neutralize the LPL-inhibitory activity of ANGPTL4. Alignment of all angiopoietin family members revealed that a sequence similar to ANGPTL4 SE1 was present only in ANGPTL3, corresponding to amino acids Glu(32)-His(55). We produced a mouse mAb against this SE1-like region in ANGPTL3. This mAb, designated 5.50.3, inhibited the binding of ANGPTL3 to LPL and neutralized ANGPTL3-mediated inhibition of LPL activity in vitro. Treatment of wild-type as well as hyperlipidemic mice with mAb 5.50.3 resulted in reduced serum TG levels, recapitulating the lipid phenotype found in Angptl3(-/-) mice. These results show that the SE1 region of ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4 functions as a domain important for binding LPL and inhibiting its activity in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, these results demonstrate that therapeutic antibodies that neutralize ANGPTL4 and ANGPTL3 may be useful for treatment of some forms of hyperlipidemia.

Discovery and characterization of potent small molecule inhibitors of the high affinity proline transporter.

The mammalian proline transporter (PROT) is a high affinity Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporter expressed in specific regions of the brain. It is homologous to other neurotransmitter transporters such as glycine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine transporters. PROT is enriched in glutamatergic synaptic terminals and may play an important role in the regulation of excitatory neurotransmission. No non-peptide small molecule inhibitors have been described for this transporter. To study its physiological role in the central nervous system and evaluate its potential as a therapeutic target, we established cell lines that stably express recombinant hPROT and characterized its kinetic properties for proline uptake. We then screened for inhibitors and identified a series of compounds that inhibit hPROT-mediated proline uptake. A known compound, benztropine, was found to inhibit hPROT with an IC(50) of 0.75microM. A series of novel compounds were also found, one of which, LP-403812, showed an IC(50) of approximately 0.1microM on both recombinant human and mouse PROT without significant inhibition of glycine and dopamine transporters at concentrations up to 10microM. This compound also inhibited proline transporter activity of mouse brain synaptosomes with the same potency. These inhibitors provide important tools for the understanding of PROT functions in the brain and may lead to the development of therapeutic agents for certain neurological disorders.

The angiopoietin-like proteins ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4 inhibit lipoprotein lipase activity through distinct mechanisms.

Two members of the angiopoietin-like family of proteins, ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4, have been shown to play important roles in modulating lipoprotein metabolism in the body. Both proteins were found to suppress lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in vitro as well as in vivo. However, their mechanisms of inhibition remained poorly understood. Using enzyme kinetic analysis with purified recombinant proteins, we have found key mechanistic differences between ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4. ANGPTL3 reduced LPL catalytic activity but did not significantly alter its self-inactivation rate. In contrast, ANGPTL4 suppressed LPL by accelerating the irreversible inactivation of LPL. Furthermore, heparin was able to overcome the inhibitory effect of ANGPTL3 on LPL but not that of ANGPTL4. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated the critical function of Glu(40) in ANGPTL4. In contrast, when cysteine residues involved in disulfide bond formation were mutated to serines, ANGPTL4 retained its activity. Taken together, our data provide a more detailed view of the structure and mechanisms of these proteins. The finding that ANGPTL3 and ANGPTL4 inhibit LPL activity through distinct mechanisms indicates that the two proteins play unique roles in modulation of lipid metabolism in vivo.

Two Dictyostelium orthologs of the prokaryotic cell division protein FtsZ localize to mitochondria and are required for the maintenance of normal mitochondrial morphology.

In bacteria, the protein FtsZ is the principal component of a ring that constricts the cell at division. Though all mitochondria probably arose through a single, ancient bacterial endosymbiosis, the mitochondria of only certain protists appear to have retained FtsZ, and the protein is absent from the mitochondria of fungi, animals, and higher plants. We have investigated the role that FtsZ plays in mitochondrial division in the genetically tractable protist Dictyostelium discoideum, which has two nuclearly encoded FtsZs, FszA and FszB, that are targeted to the inside of mitochondria. In most wild-type amoebae, the mitochondria are spherical or rod-shaped, but in fsz-null mutants they become elongated into tubules, indicating that a decrease in mitochondrial division has occurred. In support of this role in organelle division, antibodies to FszA and FszA-green fluorescent protein (GFP) show belts and puncta at multiple places along the mitochondria, which may define future or recent sites of division. FszB-GFP, in contrast, locates to an electron-dense, submitochondrial body usually located at one end of the organelle, but how it functions during division is unclear. This is the first demonstration of two differentially localized FtsZs within the one organelle, and it points to a divergence in the roles of these two proteins.

Exploring intracellular space: function of the Min system in round-shaped Escherichia coli.

The MinCDE proteins help to select cell division sites in normal cylindrical Escherichia coli by oscillating along the long axis, preventing unwanted polar divisions. To determine how the Min system might function in cells with multiple potential division planes, we investigated its role in a round-cell rodA mutant. Round cells lacking MinCDE were viable, but growth, morphology and positioning of cell division sites were abnormal relative to Min+ cells. In round cells with a long axis, such as those undergoing cell division, green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to MinD almost always oscillated parallel to the long axis. However, perfect spheres or irregularly shaped cells exhibited MinD movement to and from multiple sites on the cell surface. A MinE-GFP fusion exhibited similar behavior. These results indicate that the Min proteins can potentially localize anywhere in the cell but tend to move a certain maximum distance from their previous assembly site, thus favoring movement along the cell's long axis. A new model for the spatial control of division planes by the Min system in round cells is proposed.