Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Implications on Immune Escape, Vaccination, Therapeutic and Diagnostic Strategies.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 is associated with a lower fatality rate than its SARS and MERS counterparts. However, the rapid evolution of SARS-CoV-2 has given rise to multiple variants with varying pathogenicity and transmissibility, such as the Delta and Omicron variants. Individuals with advanced age or underlying comorbidities, including hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, are at a higher risk of increased disease severity. Hence, this has resulted in an urgent need for the development of better therapeutic and preventive approaches. This review describes the origin and evolution of human coronaviruses, particularly SARS-CoV-2 and its variants as well as sub-variants. Risk factors that contribute to disease severity and the implications of co-infections are also considered. In addition, various antiviral strategies against COVID-19, including novel and repurposed antiviral drugs targeting viral and host proteins, as well as immunotherapeutic strategies, are discussed. We critically evaluate strategies of current and emerging vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and their efficacy, including immune evasion by new variants and sub-variants. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 evolution on COVID-19 diagnostic testing is also examined. Collectively, global research and public health authorities, along with all sectors of society, need to better prepare against upcoming variants and future coronavirus outbreaks.

SARS-CoV-2 Non-Structural Proteins and Their Roles in Host Immune Evasion.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused an unprecedented global crisis and continues to threaten public health. The etiological agent of this devastating pandemic outbreak is the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is characterized by delayed immune responses, followed by exaggerated inflammatory responses. It is well-established that the interferon (IFN) and JAK/STAT signaling pathways constitute the first line of defense against viral and bacterial infections. To achieve viral replication, numerous viruses are able to antagonize or hijack these signaling pathways to attain productive infection, including SARS-CoV-2. Multiple studies document the roles of several non-structural proteins (NSPs) of SARS-CoV-2 that facilitate the establishment of viral replication in host cells via immune escape. In this review, we summarize and highlight the functions and characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 NSPs that confer host immune evasion. The molecular mechanisms mediating immune evasion and the related potential therapeutic strategies for controlling the COVID-19 pandemic are also discussed.

Current vaccine approaches and emerging strategies against herpes simplex virus (HSV).

Introduction: Vaccine development for the disease caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) has been challenging over the years and is always in dire need of novel approaches for prevention and cure. To date, the HSV disease remains incurable and challenging to prevent. The disease is extremely widespread due to its high infection rate, resulting in millions of infection cases worldwide.Areas covered: This review first explains the diverse forms of HSV-related disease presentations and reports past vaccine history for the disease. Next, this review examines current and novel HSV vaccine approaches being studied and tested for efficacy and safety as well as vaccines in clinical trial phases I to III. Modern approaches to vaccine design using bioinformatics are described. Finally, we discuss measures to enhance new vaccine development pipelines for HSV.Expert opinion: Modernized approaches using in silico analysis and bioinformatics are emerging methods that exhibit potential for producing vaccines with enhanced targets and formulations. Although not yet fully established for HSV disease, we describe current studies using these approaches for HSV vaccine design to shed light on these methods. In addition, we provide up-to-date requirements of immunogenicity, adjuvant selection, and routes of administration.