Harnessing CRISPR technology for viral therapeutics and vaccines: from preclinical studies to clinical applications.

The CRISPR/Cas system, identified as a type of bacterial adaptive immune system, have attracted significant attention due to its remarkable ability to precisely detect and eliminate foreign genetic material and nucleic acids. Expanding upon these inherent capabilities, recent investigations have unveiled the potential of reprogrammed CRISPR/Cas 9, 12, and 13 systems for treating viral infections associated with human diseases, specifically targeting DNA and RNA viruses, respectively. Of particular interest is the RNA virus responsible for the recent global outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which presents a substantial public health risk, coupled with limited efficacy of current prophylactic and therapeutic techniques. In this regard, the utilization of CRISPR/Cas technology offers a promising gene editing approach to overcome the limitations of conventional methods in managing viral infections. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the latest CRISPR/Cas-based therapeutic and vaccine strategies employed to combat human viral infections. Additionally, we discuss significant challenges and offer insights into the future prospects of this cutting-edge gene editing technology.

Novel liposomal glatiramer acetate: Preparation and immunomodulatory evaluation in murine model of multiple sclerosis.

The frequent administration rate required for Glatiramer acetate (GA), a first-line therapy for Multiple sclerosis (MS), poses patient compliance issues. Only a small portion of the subcutaneously administered GA is available for phagocytosis by macrophages, as most of it is hydrolyzed at its administration site or excreted renally. To unravel these hurdles, we have prepared liposomal formulations of GA through thin film-hydration method plus extrusion. The clinical and histopathological efficacy of GA-loaded liposomes were assessed in prophylactic and therapeutic manners on murine model of MS (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)). The selected GA liposomal formulation showed favorable size (275 nm on average), high loading efficiency, and high macrophage localization. Moreover, administration of GA-liposomes in mice robustly suppressed the inflammatory responses and decreased the inflammatory and demyelinated lesion regions in CNS compared to the free GA with subsequent reduction of the EAE clinical score. Our study indicated that liposomal GA could be served as a reliable nanomedicine-based platform to hopefully curb MS-related aberrant autoreactive immune responses with higher efficacy, longer duration of action, fewer administration frequencies, and higher delivery rate to macrophages. This platform has the potential to be introduced as a vaccine for MS after clinical translation and merits further investigations.

Improving the efficacy of peptide vaccines in cancer immunotherapy.

Peptide vaccines have shown great potential in cancer immunotherapy by targeting tumor antigens and activating the patient's immune system to mount a specific response against cancer cells. However, the efficacy of peptide vaccines in inducing a sustained immune response and achieving clinical benefit remains a major challenge. In this review, we discuss the current status of peptide vaccines in cancer immunotherapy and strategies to improve their efficacy. We summarize the recent advancements in the development of peptide vaccines in pre-clinical and clinical settings, including the use of novel adjuvants, neoantigens, nano-delivery systems, and combination therapies. We also highlight the importance of personalized cancer vaccines, which consider the unique genetic and immunological profiles of individual patients. We also discuss the strategies to enhance the immunogenicity of peptide vaccines such as multivalent peptides, conjugated peptides, fusion proteins, and self-assembled peptides. Although, peptide vaccines alone are weak immunogens, combining peptide vaccines with other immunotherapeutic approaches and developing novel approaches such as personalized vaccines can be promising methods to significantly enhance their efficacy and improve the clinical outcomes for cancer patients.

The effect of m2 peptide targeted nanoliposomes containing crocin on induction of phenotypic change in tumor macrophages to M1 state.

AIMS: Crocin has immunomodulatory and anticancer effects. In this study, crocin was used to induce the M1 phenotype in mouse tumor macrophages. MAIN METHODS: A targeted liposomal formulation with m2 peptide was prepared and characterized to deliver crocin to the M2 macrophages present in the tumor environment. RT-qPCR and IHC were performed for in vitro and in vivo (in C26 colon carcinoma mouse model at a dose of 50 mg/kg) assessment of M1 induction, respectively. KEY FINDINGS: In vitro results indicated that liposome modified with m2 peptide was non-toxic to macrophages and had an improved uptake by macrophages compared to the non-targeted formulation and induced M1 phenotype through an IL6-independent pathway. M2 peptide- modified liposome showed considerable tumor accumulation and anti-tumor effects and significantly shifted the phenotype of tumor macrophages towards an anti-tumor M1 phenotype. SIGNIFICANCE: Probably the remarkable anti-tumor responses observed in this study with m2 peptide-targeted liposomal formulations containing crocin were due to the enhanced delivery of crocin to the tumor macrophage and the subsequent initiation of anti-tumor immune responses.

Nanoliposomal VEGF-R2 peptide vaccine acts as an effective therapeutic vaccine in a murine B16F10 model of melanoma.

Background: The vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) plays an important role in melanoma development and progression. Peptide vaccines have shown great potential in cancer immunotherapy by targeting VEGFR-2 as a tumor-associated antigen and boosting the immune response against both tumor cells and tumor endothelial cells. Despite this, the low efficiency of peptide vaccines has resulted in moderate therapeutic results in the majority of studies. Enhancing the delivery of peptide vaccines using nanoliposomes is an important strategy for improving the efficacy of peptide vaccines. In this regard, we designed VEGFR-2-derived peptides restricted to both mouse MHC I and human HLA-A*02:01 using immunoinformatic tools and selected three peptides representing the highest binding affinities. The peptides were encapsulated in nanoliposomal formulations using the film method plus bath sonication and characterized for their colloidal properties. Results: The mean diameter of peptide-encapsulated liposomes was around 135 nm, zeta potential of - 17 mV, and encapsulation efficiency of approximately 70%. Then, vaccine formulations were injected subcutaneously in mice bearing B16F10-established melanoma tumors and their efficiency in triggering immunological, and anti-tumor responses was evaluated. Our results represented that one of our designed VEGFR-2 peptide nanoliposomal formulations (Lip-V1) substantially activated CD4+ (p < 0.0001) and CD8+ (P < 0.001) T cell responses and significantly boosted the production of IFN-γ (P < 0.0001) and IL-4 (P < 0.0001). Furthermore, this formulation led to a significant decrease in tumor volume (P < 0.0001) and enhanced survival (P < 0.05) in mice. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the nanoliposomal formulation containing VEGFR-2 peptides could be a promising therapeutic vaccination approach capable of eliciting strong antigen-specific immunologic and anti-tumor responses. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12645-023-00213-7.

Characterization of stability, safety and immunogenicity of the mRNA lipid nanoparticle vaccine Iribovax® against COVID-19 in nonhuman primates.

mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (mRNA-LNP) vaccines have proved their efficacy, versatility and unprecedented manufacturing speed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we report on the physicochemical properties, thermostability, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of the nucleoside-modified mRNA-LNP vaccine candidate Iribovax® (also called SNEG2c). Injection of BALB/c mice, rabbits and nonhuman primates with two doses of SNEG2c induced production of high-titers of SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific and receptor-binding domain (RBD)-neutralizing antibodies in immunized animals. In addition to the strong humoral response, SNEG2c elicited substantial Th1-biased T-cell response. Sera from rhesus macaques immunized with a low dose of the vaccine showed robust spike-specific antibody titers 3-24× as high as those in convalescent sera from a panel of COVID-19 patients and 50% virus neutralization geometric mean titer of 1024 against SARS-CoV-2. Strikingly, immunization with SNEG2c completely cleared infectious SARS-CoV-2 from the upper and lower respiratory tracts of challenged macaques and protected them from viral-induced lung and trachea lesions. In contrast, the non-vaccinated macaques developed moderate to severe pulmonary pathology after the viral challenge. We present the results of repeat-dose and local tolerance toxicity and thermostability studies showing how the physicochemical properties of the mRNA-LNPs change over time and demonstrating that SNEG2 is safe, well tolerated and stable for long-term. These results support the planned human trials of SNEG2c.

Overweight and Obesity are Potential Risk Factors for Disrupted Nocturnal Sleep in Iranian Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Objectives: Obesity is a risk factor for several chronic conditions, including sleep disorders. We aimed to analyze the relationship between BMI, body fat percentage (FAT%), hip and waist circumference, and weight on the duration of nocturnal sleep. Methods: This study was part of the MASHAD cohort study. In all participants BMI and FAT% were measured. BMI was used to categorize individuals as obese, overweight, and normal subjects. FAT% was used to categorize individuals into tertile: tertile 1 (low) < 27.5, tertile 2 (medium) 27.5-41, and tertile 3 (high) > 41. The level of nightly sleep duration was categorized into three groups: <6, 6-8 (reference group), and >8 h. Results: There was a significant inverse association between body weight and duration of sleep (p < 0.05). Obese and overweight participants had 1.152 OR (CI:1.083-1.225) and 1.126 OR (CI:1.063-1.194) for a short duration of nocturnal sleep, respectively, relative to those with a normal BMI. Conclusion: BMI was an independent determinant of nocturnal sleep duration; obesity and overweight may have negative consequences on sleep duration. Weight control should be considered as a factor in adjusting sleep quality.

An insight into the role of liposomal therapeutics in the reversion of multiple sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple Sclerosis (MS), as an autoimmune disease, has complicated immunopathology, which makes its management relevant to various factors. Novel pharmaceutical vehicles, especially liposomes, can support efficacious handling of this disease both in early detection and prognosis and also in a therapeutic manner. The most well-known triggers of MS onset are the predominance of cellular to humoral immunity and enhancement of inflammatory cytokines level. The installation of liposomes as nanoparticles to control this disease holds great promise up to now. AREAS COVERED: Various types of liposomes with different properties and purposes have been formulated and targeted immune cells with their surface manipulations. They may be encapsulated with anti-inflammatory, MS-related therapeutics, or immunodominant myelin-specific peptides for attaining a higher therapeutic efficacy of the drugs or tolerance induction. Cationic liposomes are also highly applicable for gene delivery of the anti-inflammatory cytokines or silencing the inflammatory cytokines. Liposomes have also been used as biotools for comprehending MS pathomechanisms or as diagnostic agents. EXPERT OPINION: The efforts to manage MS through nanomedicine, especially liposomal therapeutics, pave a new avenue to a high-throughput medication of this autoimmune disease and their translation to the clinic in the future for overcoming the challenges that MS patients confront.

Vaccines targeting angiogenesis in melanoma.

Angiogenesis has a significant role in metastasis and progression of melanoma. Even small tumors may be susceptible to metastasis and hence lead to a worse outcome in patients with melanoma. One of the anti-angiogenic treatment approaches that is undergoing comprehensive study is specific immunotherapy. While tumor cells are challenging targets for immunotherapy due to their genetic instability and heterogeneity, endothelial cells (ECs) are genetically stable. Therefore, vaccines targeting angiogenesis in melanoma are appropriate choices that target both tumor cells and ECs while capable of inducing strong, anti-tumor immune responses with limited toxicity. The main targets of angiogenesis are VEGFs and their receptors but other potential targets have also been investigated, especially in preclinical studies. Various types of vaccines that target angiogenesis in melanoma have been studied including DNA, peptide, protein, dendritic cell-based, and endothelial cell vaccines. This review outlines a number of target antigens that are important for potential progress in developing vaccines for targeting angiogenesis in melanoma. We also discuss different types of vaccines that have been investigated, delivery mechanisms and popular adjuvants, and suggest ways to improve future clinical outcomes.

Recent Advancements in Liposome-Based Strategies for Effective Drug Delivery to the Brain.

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) and tumors of the brain are challenging to treat, and they rank amongst the most common causes of death worldwide. The delivery of drugs to the brain is problematic because the blood-brain barrier (BBB) effectively arrests the transport of large molecules (including drugs) from the blood to the CNS. Nanoparticle (NP)-mediated drug delivery has received much interest as a technique to overcome this difficulty. In particular, liposome NPs are promising candidates to carry and deliver drugs across the BBB and into the CNS. Liposomes are easy to prepare, highly biodegradable, and biocompatible. Liposomes can be easily modified with various ligands to enable efficient and targeted drug delivery. Liposomes can promote increased cellular uptake of drugs and can reduce the extent to which efflux transporters can remove drugs. Liposomes can be loaded with a wide range of drugs and biologically active substances. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in research relating to liposome-based strategies to enable drug delivery across the BBB.

Anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule RNA aptamer-conjugated liposomal doxorubicin as an efficient targeted therapy in mice bearing colon carcinoma tumor model.

To overcome the lack of selectivity and nonspecific biodistribution of drugs in the body, targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic agents with aptamers is a very effective method. In this strategy, aptamers could be specifically identified and attach to targeted molecules on the cancerous cells and deliver the chemotherapeutic agents to desired tissue with minimal or no damage to the normal cells. In this study, we designed anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) RNA aptamer conjugated PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (ER-lip) to investigate its in vitro and in vivo anticancer abilities. Data showed that EpCAM aptamer was able to enhance cell uptake and cytotoxic effects of Dox in C26 cell line. The biodistribution study indicated that ER-lip enhanced the tumor accumulation of Dox compared to Caelyx. Also, double staining of isolated tumor cells with anti-CD44-PE-cy5 and anti-EpCAM Cy-7 antibodies indicated that tumor cells expressed a high level of EpCAM+ CD44+ cells (p ≤ .001) compared to cultured C26 cell line. in vivo results showed that ER-lip promoted survival and reduced tumor growth rate in animal model compared to Caelyx. In conclusion, these results suggested that the ER-lip could be served as promising formulation for the treatment of cancers with the high expression of EpCAM.

Immunoliposomes bearing lymphocyte activation gene 3 fusion protein and P5 peptide: A novel vaccine for breast cancer.

LAG3-Ig as an immune adjuvant has elicited potent anti-tumor immune responses in several preclinical and clinical studies, but the full potential immunostimulatory of LAG3-Ig has yet to be achieved. We hypothesized that by anchoring LAG3-Ig to the surface of liposomes, the adjuvant activity of LAG3-Ig could be improved. We also investigated the immunotherapy by co-delivery of liposome-coupled LAG3-Ig and P5 tumor antigen in mice model of TUBO breast cancer. We prepared and characterized novel PEGylated liposomes bearing surface conjugated LAG3-Ig and P5. Consistent with our hypothesis, liposomes-conjugated LAG3-Ig via multivalent binding to MHC class II molecules exerted immunostimulatory of LAG3-Ig and markedly induced maturation of dendritic cells more efficiently than free LAG3-Ig. LAG3-Ig-P5-immunoliposomes effectively elicited protective anti-tumor responses more than locally injected soluble LAG3-Ig + P5. The higher percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the spleen and more rapid and pronounced infiltration of these effector cells into the site of the tumor were seen following immunoliposome therapy. Finally, anti-tumor immunity induced by LAG3-Ig-P5-immunoliposomes translated into the more tumor regression and prolonged survival of treated mice, compared to soluble immunotherapy. Taken together, our findings suggest that LAG3-Ig-P5-immunoliposomes can be considered as a valuable candidate for developing a liposome-based therapeutic cancer vaccine in treating HER2/ neu+ breast cancer patients.

The therapeutic potential of targeting CD73 and CD73-derived adenosine in melanoma.

The hypoxic environment of melanoma results in CD73 upregulation on the surface of various tumor microenvironment (TME) cells including tumor cells, stromal cells and infiltrated immune cells. Consequently, CD73 through both enzymatic and none enzymatic functions affect melanoma progression. Overaccumulation of CD73-derived adenosine through interaction with its four G coupled receptors (A1AR, A2AAR, A2BAR, and A3AR) mediate tumor growth, immune suppression, angiogenesis, and metastasis. This paper aims to comprehensively review the therapeutic potential of CD73 ectonucleotidase targeting in melanoma. To reach this goal, firstly, we summarize the structure, function, regulation, and clinical outcome of CD73 ectonucleotidase. Then, we depict the metabolism and signaling of CD73-derived adenosine along with its progressive role in development of melanoma. Furthermore, the therapeutic potentials of CD73 -adenosine axis targeting is assessed in both preclinical and clinical studies. Targeting CD73-derived adenosine via small molecule inhibitor or monoclonal antibodies studies especially in combination with immune checkpoint blockers including PD-1 and CTLA-4 have shown desirable results for management of melanoma in preclinical studies and several clinical trials have recently been started to evaluate the therapeutic potential of CD73-derived adenosine targeting in solid tumors. Indeed, targeting of CD73-derived adenosine signaling could be considered as a new therapeutic target in melanoma.

Anti-Epcam Aptamer (Syl3c)-Functionalized Liposome for Targeted Delivery Of Doxorubicin: In Vitro And In Vivo Antitumor Studies in Mice Bearing C26 Colon Carcinoma.

In this study, we have surface-functionalized PEGylated-nanoliposomal doxorubicin (DOX) with anti-EpCAM (epithelial cell adhesion molecule) aptamer via post-insertion of anti-EpCAM aptamer-conjugated DSPE-mPEG2000 into Caelyx® (ED-lip). The size, charge, release profile, and cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of formulation were determined. The characterization of the ED-lip demonstrated the slightly increase in size and PDI along with the decrease in zeta potential which indicated that post-insertion efficiently done. The results of flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy have shown that ED-lip enhanced the rate of cell uptake on C26 cell line compared to Caelyx®. The ED-lip also had more cytotoxic effects than Caelyx® which indicated the efficacy of anti-EpCAM aptamer as targeting ligand. The pharmacokinetic and tissue biodistribution of formulations in mice bearing C26 tumors demonstrated that ED-lip did not affect the distribution profile of DOX compared to Caelyx® in animal model. In addition, ED-lip effectively improved the tumor accumulation of DOX and promoted survival of animals compared to Caelyx®. These results suggest that the functionalization of Caelyx® with anti-EpCAM aptamer is promising in cancer treatment and merits further investigation.

Long noncoding RNAs in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and liver fibrosis: state-of-the-art and perspectives in diagnosis and treatment.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) significantly impacts global health. Despite considerable research, its pathophysiology remains partially unclear. In addition, selective serum biomarkers of disease diagnosis and progression are missing. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of ncRNAs with crucial roles in biological processes underlying the pathophysiology of different human diseases. Recent studies have shown that lncRNA could be associated with the genesis and progression of NAFLD towards the most severe forms. Although the field is still in its infancy, it is tempting to speculate that these transcripts could be used as both diagnostic and therapeutic targets. In this review, we summarize recent findings on lncRNAs in the complex research field of NAFLD.

Combination therapy with liposomal doxorubicin and liposomal vaccine containing E75, an HER-2/neu-derived peptide, reduces myeloid-derived suppressor cells and improved tumor therapy.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are immunosuppressive cells causing resistance to immunotherapies in cancer tumors. In the current study, various immunogenic and therapeutic features of the combination therapies with non-liposomal Doxorubicin (Dox) and the E75 immunogenic peptide (Pep), derived from the human epidermal receptor-2 (HER-2), are investigated in parallel with their liposomal formulations (Lip-Dox (Doxil®) and Lip-Pep). Therefore, triple injection doses of Lip-Pep were preceded with Dox and Lip-Dox injections in TUBO/breast tumor-bearing BALB/c mice. Chemotherapy with either Dox or Lip-Dox reduced the frequency of MDSCs, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and MDSCs-associated genes of Arg1, iNOS, S100A8, S100A9. Whereas Lip-Pep + Dox and Lip-Pep + Lip-Dox treatments synergistically potentiated the immunized splenocytes to produce INF-γ and enhanced the frequency of the anti-tumor CD8+ and CD4+ T cells as opposed to both chemotherapy and immunotherapy regimens. Chemo-immunotherapy increased the number of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and reduced the level of CD25+ FoxP3+ T regulatory cells. Taken together, chemo-immunotherapy was the optimum treatment for the limitation of tumor progression as they targeted more cancer-related immune players.

Nanoliposomal vaccine containing long multi-epitope peptide E75-AE36 pulsed PADRE-induced effective immune response in mice TUBO model of breast cancer.

The main goal of peptide-based cancer vaccines is to induce the immune system and activation of effective T cell responses against cancerous cells. Nevertheless, the potency of peptide vaccines is insufficient in most of cases and had limited clinical success. Therefore, the optimization of peptide-based cancer vaccine is essential to achieve powerful therapeutic outcomes. One strategy to enhanced potency of peptide vaccines and induce strong immune responses is the preparation of multi-epitope peptide formulation containing both Th- and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-induced responses epitope using suitable delivery system. For this reason, we studied the effect of Dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine-containing liposomal vaccine composed of a mixture of short peptides AE36 and E75 (HER2/neu-derived peptides) and long multi-epitope peptide E75-AE36 (linkage of short peptides) in combination with a Pan HLA-DR epitope (PADRE) peptide. These formulations were examined using a series of subcutaneously injection to HER-2+ TUBO-tumoured mice in prophylactic and therapeutic model. We observed that mice vaccinated with liposomal long peptide in combination with PADRE resulted in the superior induction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells responses and significantly enhanced production of IFN-γ compared with liposomal short peptides and non-liposomal peptides formulations. Moreover, liposome-long peptide with PADRE led to the considerable reduction of tumour growth and lifespan induction in mouse model. In conclusion, our study indicated that liposomal formulation containing long multi-epitope peptide E75-AE36 with PADRE could be used as an effective multi-epitope prophylactic/therapeutic vaccine to generate potent antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell immune response and may be introduced as a possible candidate peptide vaccine for breast cancer.

Preparation and characterization of stable nanoliposomal formulations of curcumin with high loading efficacy: In vitro and in vivo anti-tumor study.

Liposomal formulations were made using Solvent-assisted active loading technology (SALT). Two formulations composed of HSPC:DPPG:Chol:DSPE-mPEG2000 (PG-LipCUR) and HSPC:Chol:DSPE-mPEG2000 (LipCUR) demonstrated good colloidal properties and the CUR-encapsulation of 82% and 89% for PG-LipCUR and LipCUR, respectively. The results showed that both formulations were stable during 6 months storage at 4 °C. The release study showed that the PG-LipCUR and LipCUR formulations are relatively stable at pH 7.4. Both formulations had higher cytotoxicity on TUBO and 4T1 cell lines in compassion with normal cells. PG-LipCUR had the higher amounts of CUR cellular uptake than LipCUR. Biodistribution studies showed that both formulations could enhance the half-life of the CUR 2-3 times compared to free CUR. The tumor accumulation of PG-LipCUR was significantly higher than LipCUR. The antitumor activities of liposomes on 4T1 tumor model demonstrated the efficacy of both formulations compared to PBS and free CUR. PG-LipCUR also was more potent in tumor growth delay in comparison with LipCUR. However, combination of the Caelyx® and PG-LipCUR had the most antitumor properties among other treatments. Based on the results, PG-LipCUR could be a promising formulation for the delivery of CUR which also significantly increased the efficacy of Caelyx® and merits further investigation.

Doxil chemotherapy plus liposomal P5 immunotherapy decreased myeloid-derived suppressor cells in murine model of breast cancer.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) play a pivotal role in cancer. To overcome the problem of the MDSCs in the tumor microenvironment in this study, a combination of immunotherapy and chemotherapy was used. For this purpose, a liposomal formulation of P5 peptide and PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil®) was utilized to treat mice bearing HER2+ tumor model. The results revealed that Doxil® administration before immunotherapy had not only reduced the population and functions of the MDSCs in the spleen (P < 0.001) and the tumor microenvironment (P < 0.05) but had also supported further immunotherapy including enhanced CD4+ (P < 0.01) and CD8+ lymphocyte (P < 0.001) population and IFN-γ production (P < 0.001). This effect was also more pronounced with a liposomal P5 and Doxil® compared with free peptide and doxorubicin. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that Doxil® plus liposomal P5 could have a decreasing effect on MDSCs and tumor growth, and it could be beneficial in breast cancer treatment.

MicroRNAs as important regulators of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Inflammasomes are a group of cytosolic multi-protein signaling complexes that regulate maturation of the interleukin (IL)-1 family cytokines IL-1ß and IL-18 through activation of inflammatory caspase-1. The NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the best characterized and consists of several key components that are assembled and activated in response to different endogenous and exogenous signals. The NLRP3 inflammasome is common to a number of human inflammatory diseases and its targeting may lead to novel anti-inflammatory therapy. NLRP3 inflammasome activation is tightly regulated by different mechanisms especially post-transcriptional modulation via microRNAs (miRNA). MicroRNAs are small endogenous noncoding RNAs that are 21-23 nucleotides in length and control the expression of various genes through binding to the 3'-untranslated regions of the respective mRNA and subsequent post-transcriptional regulation. MicroRNAs have recently been recognized as crucial regulators of the NLRP3 inflammasome. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the role of miRNAs in the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome complexes and their impact on the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease processes.