Grating-based phase contrast tomosynthesis imaging: proof-of-concept experimental studies.

PURPOSE: This paper concerns the feasibility of x-ray differential phase contrast (DPC) tomosynthesis imaging using a grating-based DPC benchtop experimental system, which is equipped with a commercial digital flat-panel detector and a medical-grade rotating-anode x-ray tube. An extensive system characterization was performed to quantify its imaging performance. METHODS: The major components of the benchtop system include a diagnostic x-ray tube with a 1.0 mm nominal focal spot size, a flat-panel detector with 96 µm pixel pitch, a sample stage that rotates within a limited angular span of ± 30°, and a Talbot-Lau interferometer with three x-ray gratings. A total of 21 projection views acquired with 3° increments were used to reconstruct three sets of tomosynthetic image volumes, including the conventional absorption contrast tomosynthesis image volume (AC-tomo) reconstructed using the filtered-backprojection (FBP) algorithm with the ramp kernel, the phase contrast tomosynthesis image volume (PC-tomo) reconstructed using FBP with a Hilbert kernel, and the differential phase contrast tomosynthesis image volume (DPC-tomo) reconstructed using the shift-and-add algorithm. Three inhouse physical phantoms containing tissue-surrogate materials were used to characterize the signal linearity, the signal difference-to-noise ratio (SDNR), the three-dimensional noise power spectrum (3D NPS), and the through-plane artifact spread function (ASF). RESULTS: While DPC-tomo highlights edges and interfaces in the image object, PC-tomo removes the differential nature of the DPC projection data and its pixel values are linearly related to the decrement of the real part of the x-ray refractive index. The SDNR values of polyoxymethylene in water and polystyrene in oil are 1.5 and 1.0, respectively, in AC-tomo, and the values were improved to 3.0 and 2.0, respectively, in PC-tomo. PC-tomo and AC-tomo demonstrate equivalent ASF, but their noise characteristics quantified by the 3D NPS were found to be different due to the difference in the tomosynthesis image reconstruction algorithms. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to simultaneously generate x-ray differential phase contrast, phase contrast, and absorption contrast tomosynthesis images using a grating-based data acquisition setup. The method shows promise in improving the visibility of several low-density materials and therefore merits further investigation.

Spatial resolution characterization of differential phase contrast CT systems via modulation transfer function (MTF) measurements.

By adding a Talbot-Lau interferometer to a conventional x-ray absorption computed tomography (CT) imaging system, both differential phase contrast (DPC) signal and absorption contrast signal can be simultaneously measured from the same set of CT measurements. The imaging performance of such multi-contrast x-ray CT imaging systems can be characterized with standard metrics such as noise variance, noise power spectrum, contrast-to-noise ratio, modulation transfer function (MTF), and task-based detectability index. Among these metrics, the measurement of the MTF can be challenging in DPC-CT systems due to several confounding factors such as phase wrapping and the difficulty of using fine wires as probes. To address these technical challenges, this paper discusses a viable and reliable method to experimentally measure the MTF of DPC-CT. It has been found that the spatial resolution of DPC-CT is degraded, when compared to that of the corresponding absorption CT, due to the presence of a source grating G0 in the Talbot-Lau interferometer. An effective MTF was introduced and experimentally estimated to describe the impact of the Talbot-Lau interferometer on the system MTF.

Fundamental relationship between the noise properties of grating-based differential phase contrast CT and absorption CT: theoretical framework using a cascaded system model and experimental validation.

PURPOSE: Using a grating interferometer, a conventional x-ray cone beam computed tomography (CT) data acquisition system can be used to simultaneously generate both conventional absorption CT (ACT) and differential phase contrast CT (DPC-CT) images from a single data acquisition. Since the two CT images were extracted from the same set of x-ray projections, it is expected that intrinsic relationships exist between the noise properties of the two contrast mechanisms. The purpose of this paper is to investigate these relationships. METHODS: First, a theoretical framework was developed using a cascaded system model analysis to investigate the relationship between the noise power spectra (NPS) of DPC-CT and ACT. Based on the derived analytical expressions of the NPS, the relationship between the spatial-frequency-dependent noise equivalent quanta (NEQ) of DPC-CT and ACT was derived. From these fundamental relationships, the NPS and NEQ of the DPC-CT system can be derived from the corresponding ACT system or vice versa. To validate these theoretical relationships, a benchtop cone beam DPC-CT/ACT system was used to experimentally measure the modulation transfer function (MTF) and NPS of both DPC-CT and ACT. The measured three-dimensional (3D) MTF and NPS were then combined to generate the corresponding 3D NEQ. RESULTS: Two fundamental relationships have been theoretically derived and experimentally validated for the NPS and NEQ of DPC-CT and ACT: (1) the 3D NPS of DPC-CT is quantitatively related to the corresponding 3D NPS of ACT by an inplane-only spatial-frequency-dependent factor 1∕f (2), the ratio of window functions applied to DPC-CT and ACT, and a numerical factor C(g) determined by the geometry and efficiency of the grating interferometer. Note that the frequency-dependent factor is independent of the frequency component f(z) perpendicular to the axial plane. (2) The 3D NEQ of DPC-CT is related to the corresponding 3D NEQ of ACT by an f (2) scaling factor and numerical factors that depend on both the attenuation and refraction properties of the image object, as well as C(g) and the MTF of the grating interferometer. CONCLUSIONS: The performance of a DPC-CT system is intrinsically related to the corresponding ACT system. As long as the NPS and NEQ of an ACT system is known, the corresponding NPS and NEQ of the DPC-CT system can be readily estimated using additional characteristics of the grating interferometer.

Interior tomography in x-ray differential phase contrast CT imaging.

Differential phase contrast computed tomography (DPC-CT) is an x-ray imaging method that uses the wave properties of imaging photons as the contrast mechanism. It has been demonstrated that DPC images can be obtained using a conventional x-ray tube and a Talbot-Lau-type interferometer. Due to the limited size of the gratings, current data acquisition systems only offer a limited field of view, and thus are prone to data truncation. As a result, the reconstructed DPC-CT image may suffer from image artifacts and increased inaccuracy in the reconstructed image values. In this paper, we demonstrate that a small region of interest (ROI) within a large object can be accurately and stably reconstructed using fully truncated projection datasets provided that a priori information on electron density is known for a small region inside the ROI. The method reconstructs an image iteratively to satisfy a group of physical conditions by using a projection onto convex set (POCS) approach. In this work, this POCS algorithm is validated using both numerical simulations and physical phantom experimental data. In both cases, the root mean square error is reduced by an order of magnitude with respect to the truncated analytic reconstructions. Truncation artifacts observed in the latter reconstructions are eliminated using the POCS algorithm.

Multicontrast x-ray computed tomography imaging using Talbot-Lau interferometry without phase stepping.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this work is to demonstrate that multicontrast computed tomography (CT) imaging can be performed using a Talbot-Lau interferometer without phase stepping, thus allowing for an acquisition scheme like that used for standard absorption CT. METHODS: Rather than using phase stepping to extract refraction, small-angle scattering (SAS), and absorption signals, the two gratings of a Talbot-Lau interferometer were rotated slightly to generate a moiré pattern on the detector. A Fourier analysis of the moiré pattern was performed to obtain separate projection images of each of the three contrast signals, all from the same single-shot of x-ray exposure. After the signals were extracted from the detector data for all view angles, image reconstruction was performed to obtain absorption, refraction, and SAS CT images. A physical phantom was scanned to validate the proposed data acquisition method. The results were compared with a phantom scan using the standard phase stepping approach. RESULTS: The reconstruction of each contrast mechanism produced the expected results. Signal levels and contrasts match those obtained using the phase stepping technique. CONCLUSIONS: Absorption, refraction, and SAS CT imaging can be achieved using the Talbot-Lau interferometer without the additional overhead of long scan time and phase stepping.

Time-resolved interventional cardiac C-arm cone-beam CT: an application of the PICCS algorithm.

Time-resolved cardiac imaging is particularly interesting in the interventional setting since it would provide both image guidance for accurate procedural planning and cardiac functional evaluations directly in the operating room. Imaging the heart in vivo using a slowly rotating C-arm system is extremely challenging due to the limitations of the data acquisition system and the high temporal resolution required to avoid motion artifacts. In this paper, a data acquisition scheme and an image reconstruction method are proposed to achieve time-resolved cardiac cone-beam computed tomography imaging with isotropic spatial resolution and high temporal resolution using a slowly rotating C-arm system. The data are acquired within 14 s using a single gantry rotation with a short scan angular range. The enabling image reconstruction method is the prior image constrained compressed sensing (PICCS) algorithm. The prior image is reconstructed from data acquired over all cardiac phases. Each cardiac phase is then reconstructed from the retrospectively gated cardiac data using the PICCS algorithm. To validate the method, several studies were performed. Both numerical simulations using a hybrid motion phantom with static background anatomy as well as physical phantom studies have been used to demonstrate that the proposed method enables accurate reconstruction of image objects with a high isotropic spatial resolution. A canine animal model scanned in vivo was used to further validate the method.

Scaling law for noise variance and spatial resolution in differential phase contrast computed tomography.

PURPOSE: The noise variance versus spatial resolution relationship in differential phase contrast (DPC) projection imaging and computed tomography (CT) are derived and compared to conventional absorption-based x-ray projection imaging and CT. METHODS: The scaling law for DPC-CT is theoretically derived and subsequently validated with phantom results from an experimental Talbot-Lau interferometer system. RESULTS: For the DPC imaging method, the noise variance in the differential projection images follows the same inverse-square law with spatial resolution as in conventional absorption-based x-ray imaging projections. However, both in theory and experimental results, in DPC-CT the noise variance scales with spatial resolution following an inverse linear relationship with fixed slice thickness. CONCLUSIONS: The scaling law in DPC-CT implies a lesser noise, and therefore dose, penalty for moving to higher spatial resolutions when compared to conventional absorption-based CT in order to maintain the same contrast-to-noise ratio.

Radiation dose efficiency comparison between differential phase contrast CT and conventional absorption CT.

PURPOSE: The superior radiation dose efficiency of a newly implemented differential phase contrast CT imaging method compared to the conventional absorption CT method is demonstrated. METHODS: A differential phase contrast CT imaging method has recently been implemented using conventional x-ray sources with a grating interferometer consisting of three gratings. This approach offers the possibility of simultaneous reconstruction of both attenuation contrast and phase contrast images from a single acquisition. This enables a direct comparison of radiation dose efficiency of both types of reconstructed images under identical conditions. Radiation dose efficiency was studied by measuring the change in contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) with different exposure levels. A physical phantom of 28.5 mm diameter was constructed and used for measurement of CNR in both the absorption and phase contrast CT images, which were reconstructed from the same data set. RESULTS: For three of the four materials studied, at any given exposure level, the CNR of the differential phase contrast CT images was superior to that of the corresponding absorption contrast CT images. The most dramatic improvement was noted in the contrast between PMMA and water, where the CNR was improved by a factor of approximately 5.5 in the differential phase contrast CT images. Additionally, the CNR of phase contrast CT is empirically shown to have the same square root dependence on exposure, as is the case for absorption contrast CT. CONCLUSIONS: The differential phase contrast CT method provided higher CNR than conventional absorption CT at equivalent dose levels for most of the materials studied, and so may enable achievement of the same object visibility as conventional absorption CT methods at a lower exposure level.

Small-angle scattering computed tomography (SAS-CT) using a Talbot-Lau interferometerand a rotating anode x-ray tube:theory and experiments.

X-ray differential phase contrast imaging methods, including projection imaging and the corresponding computed tomography (CT), have been implemented using a Talbot interferometer and either a synchrotron beam line or a low brilliance x-ray source generated by a stationary-anode x-ray tube. From small-angle scattering events which occur as an x-ray propagates through a medium, a signal intensity loss can be recorded and analyzed for an understanding of the micro-structures in an image object. This has been demonstrated using a Talbot-Lau interferometer and a stationary-anode x-ray tube. In this paper, theoretical principles and an experimental implementation of the corresponding CT imaging method are presented. First, a line integral is derived from analyzing the cross section of the small-angle scattering events. This method is referred to as small-angle scattering computed tomography (SAS-CT). Next, a Talbot-Lau interferometer and a rotating-anode x-ray tube were used to implement SAS-CT. A physical phantom and human breast tissue sample were used to demonstrate the reconstructed SAS-CT image volumes.

Quantitative imaging of electron density and effective atomic number using phase contrast CT.

Compared to single energy CT, which only provides information for x-ray linear attenuation coefficients, dual-energy CT is able to obtain both the electron density and effective atomic number for different materials in a quantitative way. In this study, as an alternative to dual-energy CT, a novel quantitative imaging method based on phase contrast CT is presented. Rather than requiring two projection data sets with different x-ray energy spectra, diffraction-grating-based phase contrast CT is capable of reconstructing images of both linear attenuation and refractive index decrement from the same projection data using a single x-ray energy spectra. From the two images, quantitative information of both the electron density and effective atomic number can be extracted. Two physical phantoms were constructed and used to validate the presented method. Experimental results demonstrate that (1) electron density can be accurately determined from refractive index decrement through a linear relationship, and (2) the effective atomic number can be explicitly derived from the ratio of the linear attenuation to refractive index decrement using a power function plus a constant. The presented method will provide insight into the technique of material separation and find its use in medical and industrial applications.

X-ray phase sensitive imaging methods: basic physical principles and potential medical applications.

Phase sensitive imaging theoretically allows for a drastic reduction in x-ray dose while simultaneously achieving comparable or better spatial and contrast resolution compared to traditional x-ray absorption based imaging. Several techniques exist to extract the phase information from an x-ray signal, including x-ray interferometry, diffraction enhanced imaging, in-line holography, coded aperture x-ray imaging, and grating-based interferometry. The physics of each method is reviewed, along with the potential clinical applications.

Streaking artifacts reduction in four-dimensional cone-beam computed tomography.

Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) using an "on-board" x-ray imaging device integrated into a radiation therapy system has recently been made available for patient positioning, target localization, and adaptive treatment planning. One of the challenges for gantry mounted image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT) systems is the slow acquisition of projections for cone-beam CT (CBCT), which makes them sensitive to any patient motion during the scans. Aiming at motion artifact reduction, four-dimensional CBCT (4D CBCT) techniques have been introduced, where a surrogate for the target's motion profile is utilized to sort the cone-beam data by respiratory phase. However, due to the limited gantry rotation speed and limited readout speed of the on-board imager, fewer than 100 projections are available for the image reconstruction at each respiratory phase. Thus, severe undersampling streaking artifacts plague 4D CBCT images. In this paper, the authors propose a simple scheme to significantly reduce the streaking artifacts. In this method, a prior image is first reconstructed using all available projections without gating, in which static structures are well reconstructed while moving objects are blurred. The undersampling streaking artifacts from static structures are estimated from this prior image volume and then can be removed from the phase images using gated reconstruction. The proposed method was validated using numerical simulations, experimental phantom data, and patient data. The fidelity of stationary and moving objects is maintained, while large gains in streak artifact reduction are observed. Using this technique one can reconstruct 4D CBCT datasets using no more projections than are acquired in a 60 s scan. At the same time, a temporal gating window as narrow as 100 ms was utilized. Compared to the conventional 4D CBCT reconstruction, streaking artifacts were reduced by 60% to 70%.

High temporal resolution and streak-free four-dimensional cone-beam computed tomography.

Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) has been clinically used to verify patient position and to localize the target of treatment in image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT). However, when the chest and the upper abdomen are scanned, respiratory-induced motion blurring limits the utility of CBCT. In order to mitigate this blurring, respiratory-gated CBCT, i.e. 4D CBCT, was introduced. In 4D CBCT, the cone-beam projection data sets acquired during a gantry rotation are sorted into several respiratory phases. In these gated reconstructions, the number of projections for each respiratory phase is significantly reduced. Consequently, undersampling streaking artifacts are present in the reconstructed images, and the image contrast resolution is also significantly compromised. In this paper, we present a new method to simultaneously achieve both high temporal resolution ( approximately 100 ms) and streaking artifact-free image volumes in 4D CBCT. The enabling technique is a newly proposed image reconstruction method, i.e. prior image constrained compressed sensing (PICCS), which enables accurate image reconstruction using vastly undersampled cone-beam projections and a fully sampled prior image. Using PICCS, a streak-free image can be reconstructed from 10-20 cone-beam projections while the signal-to-noise ratio is determined by a denoising feature of the selected objective function and by the prior image, which is reconstructed using all of the acquired cone-beam projections. This feature of PICCS breaks the connection between the temporal resolution and streaking artifacts' level in 4D CBCT. Numerical simulations and experimental phantom studies have been conducted to validate the method.

Temporally targeted imaging method applied to ECG-gated computed tomography: preliminary phantom and in vivo experience.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Existing cardiac imaging methods do not allow for improved temporal resolution when considering a targeted region of interest (ROI). The imaging method presented here enables improved temporal resolution for ROI imaging (namely, a reconstruction volume smaller than the complete field of view). Clinically, temporally targeted reconstruction would not change the primary means of reconstructing and evaluating images, but rather would enable the adjunct technique of ROI imaging, with improved temporal resolution compared with standard reconstruction ( approximately 20% smaller temporal scan window). In gated cardiac computed tomography (CT) scans improved temporal resolution directly translates into a reduction in motion artifacts for rapidly moving objects such as the coronary arteries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospectively electrocardiogram gated coronary angiography data from a 64-slice CT system were used. A motion phantom simulating the motion profile of a coronary artery was constructed and scanned. Additionally, an in vivo study was performed using a porcine model. Comparisons between the new reconstruction technique and the standard reconstruction are given for an ROI centered on the right coronary artery, and a pulmonary ROI. RESULTS: In both a well-controlled motion model and a porcine model results show a decrease in motion induced artifacts including motion blur and streak artifacts from contrast enhanced vessels within the targeted ROIs, as assessed through both qualitative and quantitative observations. CONCLUSION: Temporally targeted reconstruction techniques demonstrate the potential to reduce motion artifacts in coronary CT. Further study is warranted to demonstrate the conditions under which this technique will offer direct clinical utility. Improvement in temporal resolution for gated cardiac scans has implications for improving: contrast enhanced CT angiography, calcium scoring, and assessment of the pulmonary anatomy.

C-arm based cone-beam CT using a two-concentric-arc source trajectory: system evaluation.

The current x-ray source trajectory for C-arm based cone-beam CT is a single arc. Reconstruction from data acquired with this trajectory yields cone-beam artifacts for regions other than the central slice. In this work we present the preliminary evaluation of reconstruction from a source trajectory of two concentric arcs using a flat-panel detector equipped C-arm gantry (GE Healthcare Innova 4100 system, Waukesha, Wisconsin). The reconstruction method employed is a summation of FDK-type reconstructions from the two individual arcs. For the angle between arcs studied here, 30°, this method offers a significant reduction in the visibility of cone-beam artifacts, with the additional advantages of simplicity and ease of implementation due to the fact that it is a direct extension of the reconstruction method currently implemented on commercial systems. Reconstructed images from data acquired from the two arc trajectory are compared to those reconstructed from a single arc trajectory and evaluated in terms of spatial resolution, low contrast resolution, noise, and artifact level.

Exact and approximate cone-beam reconstruction algorithms for C-arm based cone-beam CT using a two-concentric-arc source trajectory.

In this paper, we present shift-invariant filtered backprojection (FBP) cone-beam image reconstruction algorithms for a cone-beam CT system based on a clinical C-arm gantry. The source trajectory consists of two concentric arcs which is complete in the sense that the Tuy data sufficiency condition is satisfied. This scanning geometry is referred to here as a CC geometry (each arc is shaped like the letter "C"). The challenge for image reconstruction for the CC geometry is that the image volume is not well populated by the familiar doubly measured (DM) lines. Thus, the well-known DM-line based image reconstruction schemes are not appropriate for the CC geometry. Our starting point is a general reconstruction formula developed by Pack and Noo which is not dependent on the existence of DM-lines. For a specific scanning geometry, the filtering lines must be carefully selected to satisfy the Pack-Noo condition for mathematically exact reconstruction. The new points in this paper are summarized here. (1) A mathematically exact cone-beam reconstruction algorithm was formulated for the CC geometry by utilizing the Pack-Noo image reconstruction scheme. One drawback of the developed exact algorithm is that it does not solve the long-object problem. (2) We developed an approximate image reconstruction algorithm by deforming the filtering lines so that the long object problem is solved while the reconstruction accuracy is maintained. (3) In addition to numerical phantom experiments to validate the developed image reconstruction algorithms, we also validate our algorithms using physical phantom experiments on a clinical C-arm system.