A Statistical Approach for A-Posteriori Deployment of Microclimate Sensors in Museums: A Case Study.

The deployment of sensors is the first issue encountered when microclimate monitoring is planned in spaces devoted to the conservation of artworks. Sometimes, the first decision regarding the position of sensors may not be suitable for characterising the microclimate close to climate-sensitive artworks or should be revised in light of new circumstances. This paper fits into this context by proposing a rational approach for a posteriori deployment of microclimate sensors in museums where long-term temperature and relative humidity observations were available (here, the Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen, Denmark). Different statistical tools such as box-and-whisker plots, principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were used to identify microclimate patterns, i.e., similarities of indoor air conditions among rooms. Box-and-whisker plots allowed us to clearly identify one microclimate pattern in two adjoining rooms located in the basement. Multivariate methods (PCA and CA) enabled us to identify further microclimate patterns by grouping not only adjoining rooms but also rooms located on different floors. Based on these outcomes, new configurations about the deployment of sensors were proposed aimed at avoiding redundant sensors and collecting microclimate observations in other sensitive locations of this museum.

Multivariate Characterization of Temperature Fluctuations in a Historical Building Using Energy-Efficient IoT Wireless Sensors.

Adequate thermic conditions are required for the preventive conservation of artworks, but such optimum conditions cannot always be achieved in historical buildings such as ancient churches. In those cases, it is of interest to assess the potential risk of punctual changes in indoor environments that can be harmful to artworks. These conditions can be assessed by means of a microclimate monitoring system comprised of a set of energy-efficient wireless sensors connected to the cloud using IoT techniques. This approach was followed at the baroque church of Saint Thomas and Saint Philip Neri in Valencia (Spain). A set of 26 wireless nodes was installed, which recorded values of temperature and relative humidity every hour for a period of 7 months. Small differences of temperature were obtained among sensors, so that an efficient methodology based on principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for the characterization of similarities and dissimilarities between sensors. Daily ranges of temperatures were studied as well as mean trajectories, differences between days of the week, and changes in the correlation structure of daily median values over time. Results provide a framework for an efficient characterization of temperatures in heritage buildings based on a network of wireless sensors. Such a framework is useful to assess the potential risk of temperature fluctuations on the preventive conservation of historical buildings and artworks.

A Methodology for the Multi-Point Characterization of Short-Term Temperature Fluctuations in Complex Microclimates Based on the European Standard EN 15757:2010: Application to the Archaeological Museum of L'Almoina (Valencia, Spain).

The monitoring and control of thermo-hygrometric indoor conditions is necessary for an adequate preservation of cultural heritage. The European standard EN 15757:2010 specifies a procedure for determining if seasonal patterns of relative humidity (RH) and temperature are adequate for the long-term preservation of hygroscopic materials on display at museums, archives, libraries or heritage buildings. This procedure is based on the characterization of the seasonal patterns and the calculation of certain control limits, so that it is possible to assess whether certain changes in the microclimate can be harmful for the preventive conservation of artworks, which would lead to the implementation of corrective actions. In order to discuss the application of this standard, 27 autonomous data-loggers were located in different points at the Archaeological Museum of l'Almoina (Valencia). The HVAC system (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) at the museum tries to reach certain homogeneous environment, which becomes a challenge because parts of the ruins are covered by a skylight that produces a greenhouse effect in summer, resulting in severe thermo-hygrometric gradients. Based on the analysis of temperatures recorded during 16 months, the air conditions in this museum are discussed according to the standard EN 15757:2010, and some corrective measures are proposed to improve the conservation conditions. Although this standard is basically intended for data recorded from a single sensor, an alternative approach proposed in this work is to find zones inside the museum with a homogeneous microclimate and to discuss next the average values collected in each area. A methodology is presented to optimize the application of this standard in places with a complex microclimate like this case, when multiple sensors are located at different positions.

Characterization of Temperature Gradients According to Height in a Baroque Church by Means of Wireless Sensors.

The baroque church of Saint Thomas and Saint Philip Neri (Valencia, Spain), which was built between 1727 and 1736, contains valuable paintings by renowned Spanish artists. Due to the considerable height of the central nave, the church can experience vertical temperature gradients. In order to investigate this issue, temperatures were recorded between August 2017 and February 2018 from a wireless monitoring system composed of 21 sensor nodes, which were located at different heights in the church from 2 to 13 m from the floor level. For characterizing the temperature at high, medium and low altitude heights, a novel methodology is proposed based on sparse Partial Least Squares regression (sPLS), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), and the Holt-Winters method, among others, which were applied to a time series of temperature. This approach is helpful to discriminate temperature profiles according to sensor height. Once the vertical thermal gradients for each month were characterized, it was found that temperature reached the maximum correlation with sensor height in the period between August 10th and September 9th. Furthermore, the most important features from the time series that explain this correlation are the mean temperature and the mean of moving range. In the period mentioned, the vertical thermal gradient was estimated to be about 0.043 ∘C/m, which implies a difference of 0.47 ∘C on average between sensor nodes at 2 m from the floor with respect to the upper ones located at 13 m from the floor level. The gradient was estimated as the slope from a linear regression model using height and hourly mean temperature as the predictor and response, respectively. This gradient is consistent with similar reported studies. The fact that such gradient was only found in one month suggests that the mechanisms of dust deposition on walls involved in vertical thermal gradients are not important in this case regarding the preventive conservation of artworks. Furthermore, the methodology proposed here was useful to discriminate the time series at high, medium and low altitude levels. This approach can be useful when a set of sensors is installed for microclimate monitoring in churches, cathedrals, and other historical buildings, at different levels and positions.

Multivariate Time Series Analysis of Temperatures in the Archaeological Museum of L'Almoina (Valencia, Spain).

An earlier study carried out in 2010 at the archaeological site of L'Almoina (Valencia, Spain) found marked daily fluctuations of temperature, especially in summer. Such pronounced gradient is due to the design of the museum, which includes a skylight as a ceiling, covering part of the remains in the museum. In this study, it was found that the thermal conditions are not homogeneous and vary at different points of the museum and along the year. According to the European Standard EN10829, it is necessary to define a plan for long-term monitoring, elaboration and study of the microclimatic data, in order to preserve the artifacts. With the aforementioned goal of extending the study and offering a tool to monitor the microclimate, a new statistical methodology is proposed. For this propose, during one year (October 2019-October 2020), a set of 27 data-loggers was installed, aimed at recording the temperature inside the museum. By applying principal component analysis and k-means, three different microclimates were established. In order to characterize the differences among the three zones, two statistical techniques were put forward. Firstly, Sparse Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (sPLS-DA) was applied to a set of 671 variables extracted from the time series. The second approach consisted of using a random forest algorithm, based on the same functions and variables employed by the first methodology. Both approaches allowed the identification of the main variables that best explain the differences between zones. According to the results, it is possible to establish a representative subset of sensors recommended for the long-term monitoring of temperatures at the museum. The statistical approach proposed here is very effective for discriminant time series analysis and for explaining the differences in microclimate when a net of sensors is installed in historical buildings or museums.

A Methodology for Discriminant Time Series Analysis Applied to Microclimate Monitoring of Fresco Paintings.

The famous Renaissance frescoes in Valencia's Cathedral (Spain) have been kept under confined temperature and relative humidity (RH) conditions for about 300 years, until the removal of the baroque vault covering them, carried out in 2006. In the interest of longer-term preservation and in order to maintain these frescoes in good condition, a unique monitoring system was implemented to record both air temperature and RH. Sensors were installed in different points at the vault of the apse, during the restoration process. The present study proposes a statistical methodology for analyzing a subset of RH data recorded in 2008 and 2010, from the sensors. This methodology is based on fitting different functions and models to the time series, in order to classify the sensors. The methodology proposed, computes classification variables and applies a discriminant technique to them. The classification variables correspond to estimates of parameters of the models and features such as mean and maximum, among others. These features are computed using values of the functions such as spectral density, sample autocorrelation (sample ACF), sample partial autocorrelation (sample PACF), and moving range (MR). The classification variables computed were structured as a matrix. Next, Sparse Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (sPLS-DA) was applied in order to discriminate sensors according to their position in the vault. It was found that the classification of sensors derived from Seasonal ARIMA-TGARCH showed the best performance (i.e., lowest classification error rate). Based on these results, the methodology applied here can be useful for characterizing the differences in RH, measured at different positions in a historical building.

A Sensory 3D Map of the Odor Description Space Derived from a Comparison of Numeric Odor Profile Databases.

Many authors have proposed different schemes of odor classification, which are useful to aid the complex task of describing smells. However, reaching a consensus on a particular classification seems difficult because our psychophysical space of odor description is a continuum and is not clustered into well-defined categories. An alternative approach is to describe the perceptual space of odors as a low-dimensional coordinate system. This idea was first proposed by Crocker and Henderson in 1927, who suggested using numeric profiles based on 4 dimensions: "fragrant," "acid," "burnt," and "caprylic." In the present work, the odor profiles of 144 aroma chemicals were compared by means of statistical regression with comparable numeric odor profiles obtained from 2 databases, enabling a plausible interpretation of the 4 dimensions. Based on the results and taking into account comparable 2D sensory maps of odor descriptors from the literature, a 3D sensory map (odor cube) has been drawn up to improve understanding of the similarities and dissimilarities of the odor descriptors most frequently used in fragrance chemistry.

Diagnosis of abnormal patterns in multivariate microclimate monitoring: a case study of an open-air archaeological site in Pompeii (Italy).

Chemometrics has been applied successfully since the 1990s for the multivariate statistical control of industrial processes. A new area of interest for these tools is the microclimatic monitoring of cultural heritage. Sensors record climatic parameters over time and statistical data analysis is performed to obtain valuable information for preventive conservation. A case study of an open-air archaeological site is presented here. A set of 26 temperature and relative humidity data-loggers was installed in four rooms of Ariadne's house (Pompeii). If climatic values are recorded versus time at different positions, the resulting data structure is equivalent to records of physical parameters registered at several points of a continuous chemical process. However, there is an important difference in this case: continuous processes are controlled to reach a steady state, whilst open-air sites undergo tremendous fluctuations. Although data from continuous processes are usually column-centred prior to applying principal components analysis, it turned out that another pre-treatment (row-centred data) was more convenient for the interpretation of components and to identify abnormal patterns. The detection of typical trajectories was more straightforward by dividing the whole monitored period into several sub-periods, because the marked climatic fluctuations throughout the year affect the correlation structures. The proposed statistical methodology is of interest for the microclimatic monitoring of cultural heritage, particularly in the case of open-air or semi-confined archaeological sites.

Evaluation of corrective measures implemented for the preventive conservation of fresco paintings in Ariadne's house (Pompeii, Italy).

BACKGROUND: A microclimate monitoring study was conducted in 2008 aimed at assessing the conservation risks affecting the valuable wall paintings decorating Ariadne's House (Pompeii, Italy). It was found that thermohygrometric conditions were very unfavorable for the conservation of frescoes. As a result, it was decided to implement corrective measures, and the transparent polycarbonate sheets covering three rooms (one of them delimited by four walls and the others composed of three walls) were replaced by opaque roofs. In order to examine the effectiveness of this measure, the same monitoring system comprised by 26 thermohygrometric probes was installed again in summer 2010. Data recorded in 2008 and 2010 were compared. RESULTS: Microclimate conditions were also monitored in a control room with the same roof in both years. The average temperature in this room was lower in 2010, and it was decided to consider a time frame of 18 summer days with the same mean temperature in both years. In the rooms with three walls, the statistical analysis revealed that the diurnal maximum temperature decreased about 3.5°C due to the roof change, and the minimum temperature increased 0.5°C. As a result, the daily thermohygrometric variations resulted less pronounced in 2010, with a reduction of approximately 4°C, which is favorable for the preservation of mural paintings. In the room with four walls, the daily fluctuations also decreased about 4°C. Based on the results, other alternative actions are discussed aimed at improving the conservation conditions of wall paintings. CONCLUSIONS: The roof change has reduced the most unfavorable thermohygrometric conditions affecting the mural paintings, but additional actions should be adopted for a long term preservation of Pompeian frescoes.

Microclimate monitoring of Ariadne's house (Pompeii, Italy) for preventive conservation of fresco paintings.

BACKGROUND: Ariadne's house, located at the city center of ancient Pompeii, is of great archaeological value due to the fresco paintings decorating several rooms. In order to assess the risks for long-term conservation affecting the valuable mural paintings, 26 temperature data-loggers and 26 relative humidity data-loggers were located in four rooms of the house for the monitoring of ambient conditions. RESULTS: Data recorded during 372 days were analyzed by means of graphical descriptive methods and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results revealed an effect of the roof type and number of walls of the room. Excessive temperatures were observed during the summer in rooms covered with transparent roofs, and corrective actions were taken. Moreover, higher humidity values were recorded by sensors on the floor level. CONCLUSIONS: The present work provides guidelines about the type, number, calibration and position of thermohygrometric sensors recommended for the microclimate monitoring of mural paintings in outdoor or semi-confined environments.

Effect of functional group and carbon chain length on the odor detection threshold of aliphatic compounds.

Odor detection thresholds (ODTs) are used for assessing outdoor and indoor air quality. They are obtained experimentally by olfactometry and psychophysical methods, and large compilations are available in the literature. A non-linear regression equation was fitted to describe the ODT variability of 114 aliphatic compounds based on the alkyl chain length for different homologous series (carboxylic acids, aldehydes, 2-ketones, esters, 1-alcohols, amines, thiols, thioethers and hydrocarbons). The resulting equation reveals an effect of the functional group, molecular size and also an interaction between both factors. Although the mechanistic interpretation of results is uncertain, the relatively high goodness-of-fit (R(2) = 0.90) suggests that ODT values of aliphatic compounds can be predicted rather accurately, which is not the case for rigid molecules. This equation may serve as a basis for the development of more complex ODT models taking into account diverse structural features of odorants. The variability of power-law exponents was also investigated for the homologous series.

What is a fresh scent in perfumery? Perceptual freshness is correlated with substantivity.

Perfumes are manufactured by mixing odorous materials with different volatilities. The parameter that measures the lasting property of a material when applied on the skin is called substantivity or tenacity. It is well known by perfumers that citrus and green notes are perceived as fresh and they tend to evaporate quickly, while odors most dissimilar to 'fresh' (e.g., oriental, powdery, erogenic and animalic scents) are tenacious. However, studies aimed at quantifying the relationship between fresh odor quality and substantivity have not received much attention. In this work, perceptual olfactory ratings on a fresh scale, estimated in a previous study, were compared with substantivity parameters and antierogenic ratings from the literature. It was found that the correlation between fresh odor character and odorant substantivity is quite strong (r = -0.85). 'Fresh' is sometimes interpreted in perfumery as 'cool' and the opposite of 'warm'. This association suggests that odor freshness might be somehow related to temperature. Assuming that odor perception space was shaped throughout evolution in temperate climates, results reported here are consistent with the hypothesis that 'fresh' evokes scents typically encountered in the cool season, while 'warm' would be evoked by odors found in nature during summer. This hypothesis is rather simplistic but it may provide a new insight to better understand the perceptual space of scents.

Hedonic judgments of chemical compounds are correlated with molecular size.

Different psychophysical works have reported that, when a wide range of odors is assessed, the hedonic dimension is the most salient. Hence, pleasantness is the most basic attribute of odor perception. Recent studies suggest that the molecular size of a given odorant is positively correlated with its hedonic character. This correlation was confirmed in the present study, but further basic molecular features affecting pleasantness were identified by means of multiple linear regression for the compounds contained in five chemical sets. For three of them, hedonic judgments are available in the literature. For a further two chemical sets, hedonic scores were estimated from odor character descriptions based on numerical profiles. Generally speaking, fairly similar equations were obtained for the prediction of hedonic judgments in the five chemical sets, with R(2) values ranging from 0.46 to 0.71. The results suggest that larger molecules containing oxygen are more likely to be perceived as pleasant, while the opposite applies to carboxylic acids and sulfur compounds.

Long-term monitoring of fresco paintings in the cathedral of Valencia (Spain) through humidity and temperature sensors in various locations for preventive conservation.

We describe the performance of a microclimate monitoring system that was implemented for the preventive conservation of the Renaissance frescoes in the apse vault of the Cathedral of Valencia, that were restored in 2006. This system comprises 29 relative humidity (RH) and temperature sensors: 10 of them inserted into the plaster layer supporting the fresco paintings, 10 sensors in the walls close to the frescoes and nine sensors measuring the indoor microclimate at different points of the vault. Principal component analysis was applied to RH data recorded in 2007. The analysis was repeated with data collected in 2008 and 2010. The resulting loading plots revealed that the similarities and dissimilarities among sensors were approximately maintained along the three years. A physical interpretation was provided for the first and second principal components. Interestingly, sensors recording the highest RH values correspond to zones where humidity problems are causing formation of efflorescence. Recorded data of RH and temperature are discussed according to Italian Standard UNI 10829 (1999).

Solid phase microextraction of volatile emissions of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae): influence of fly sex, age, and mating status.

Considerable efforts have been devoted to understanding the courtship behavior and pheromone communication of medflies; however, the sex pheromone composition is still a controversial subject. The discovery of new components affecting medfly behavior would be of interest for medfly control methods based on semiochemicals. This work describes volatile compounds emitted by Ceratitis capitata collected using solid phase microextraction. The volatile study was conducted according to an experimental design with three factors (sex, age, and mating status) assumed to be relevant for better understanding the chemical communication. Emission data were treated by means of principal component analysis, a statistical methodology not previously applied to the study of volatiles emitted by fruit flies. The characterization of emission patterns could be useful for the selection of compounds to be further investigated in biological assays to improve knowledge of the key semiochemicals involved in medfly behavior.

Mediterranean fruit fly suppression using chemosterilants for area-wide integrated pest management.

BACKGROUND: The chemosterilisation technique has been demonstrated to reduce the population and fruit damage of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), in citrus orchards. Field trials showed efficacy by reducing the fruit fly population, which was progressively achieved by continuous application of lufenuron to several generations. Different authors have suggested that field trials should be carried out in isolated or wide areas in order to reduce fruit fly intrusion and obtain best results. To this end, a wide-area trial over 3600 hectares has been under investigation in Valencia (Spain) since 2002 to validate the chemosterilisation technique against the fruit fly. The whole area was treated with 24 traps ha(-1), using more than 86,000 traps in the field trial. RESULTS: A continuous decrease in fruit fly population was observed over the 4 years under trial. Moreover, results showed a significant reduction in persimmon damage in the chemosterilant treatment area compared with a malathion aerial treatment area. In the case of citrus damage, no significant differences were obtained between malathion and chemosterilant treatments. CONCLUSION: The chemosterilant method reduces Mediterranean fruit fly populations, and therefore it is a candidate treatment to replace aerial treatments with insecticides in order to suppress this pest. In addition, the efficacy of chemosterilant treatment is increasing year after year. The possibility of using this technique combined with other control methods is discussed.

Study on the optimum pheromone release rate for attraction of Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

Traditional chemical control against Chilo suppressalis Walker is currently being replaced in Spain by new methods based on pheromones. A key step to improve the efficacy of these methods is the determination of the optimum pheromone release rate, which is still uncertain for this pest. In this work, the pheromone release profile and the field performance of a new mesoporous dispenser was compared with a standard commercial dispenser. For this purpose, pheromone loads were extracted from field-aged dispensers and quantified by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. In addition, a field trial was carried out with traps baited with one, two, or three mesoporous dispensers per trap, as well as with traps containing one standard dispenser. We found that the highest number of field catches did not correspond to the highest pheromone emission rate, which suggests a repellent effect of the insect if the emission is excessive. The results suggest that the attractant activity was maximized by emitting approximately 34 microg/d. The efficacy of the mesoporous dispenser and its possible improvements are discussed.

Understanding the underlying dimensions in perfumers' odor perception space as a basis for developing meaningful odor maps.

Various low-dimensional perceptual maps of fragrances have been proposed in the literature, as well as sensory maps for the odor descriptors most frequently applied in perfumery. To reach a consensus, however, seems difficult, if at all possible. In the present study, we applied principal components analysis to two databases. The first contains numeric odor profiles of 309 compounds based on 30 descriptors. The loading plot corresponding to the relevant components was strikingly similar to the odor effects diagram proposed by P. Jellinek (1951), primarily on the basis of his long experience as a perfumer. We obtained similar results in our analysis of the second database, which comprises 66 descriptors and contains the semantic descriptions of 119 perfume materials. On the basis of the results of both analyses, a commercial map of fragrances is discussed. Our findings suggest that it is possible to develop standard sensory maps of perfumery odor descriptors, if a consensus is first reached regarding which odorants best represent particular odor qualities.

The sense of smell: molecular basis of odorant recognition.

Most animal species rely on odorant compounds to locate food, predators, or toxins. The sense of smell is also involved in animal communication, and revealing the underlying mechanisms will therefore facilitate a deeper understanding of animal behaviour. Since the 1940s different theories have speculated on the fundamental basis of olfaction. It was assumed that odorant molecules were recognized by selective protein receptors in the nose, triggering a nervous signal processed by the brain. The discovery of these receptors in the early 1990s allowed great progress in understanding the physiological and biochemical principles of olfaction. An overview of the different mechanisms involved in the coding of odour character as well as odour intensity is presented here, focusing on the biochemical basis of odorant recognition. Despite the enormous progress achieved in recent years, details of odorant-receptor interaction at the molecular level and the mechanisms of olfactory receptor activation are poorly understood. The likely role of metal ions in odorant recognition is discussed, and also the perireceptor events involved in odorant transport and biotransformation, with a view to providing a comprehensive overview of mammalian olfaction to guide future computational structural models and the design of functional experiments. Recent studies have analysed the olfactory genome of several species, providing information about the evolution of olfaction. The role of the olfactory system in animal communication is also described.

Identification of latent variables in a semantic odor profile database using principal component analysis.

Many classifications of odors have been proposed, but none of them have yet gained wide acceptance. Odor sensation is usually described by means of odor character descriptors. If these semantic profiles are obtained for a large diversity of compounds, the resulting database can be considered representative of odor perception space. Few of these comprehensive databases are publicly available, being a valuable source of information for fragrance research. Their statistical analysis has revealed that the underlying structure of odor space is high dimensional and not governed by a few primary odors. In a new effort to study the underlying sensory dimensions of the multivariate olfactory perception space, we have applied principal component analysis to a database of 881 perfume materials with semantic profiles comprising 82 odor descriptors. The relationships identified between the descriptors are consistent with those reported in similar studies and have allowed their classification into 17 odor classes.