A TBK1 variant causes autophagolysosomal and motoneuron pathology without neuroinflammation in mice.

Heterozygous mutations in the TBK1 gene can cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The majority of TBK1-ALS/FTD patients carry deleterious loss-of-expression mutations, and it is still unclear which TBK1 function leads to neurodegeneration. We investigated the impact of the pathogenic TBK1 missense variant p.E696K, which does not abolish protein expression, but leads to a selective loss of TBK1 binding to the autophagy adaptor protein and TBK1 substrate optineurin. Using organelle-specific proteomics, we found that in a knock-in mouse model and human iPSC-derived motor neurons, the p.E696K mutation causes presymptomatic onset of autophagolysosomal dysfunction in neurons precipitating the accumulation of damaged lysosomes. This is followed by a progressive, age-dependent motor neuron disease. Contrary to the phenotype of mice with full Tbk1 knock-out, RIPK/TNF-α-dependent hepatic, neuronal necroptosis, and overt autoinflammation were not detected. Our in vivo results indicate autophagolysosomal dysfunction as a trigger for neurodegeneration and a promising therapeutic target in TBK1-ALS/FTD.

Mapping autophagosome contents identifies interleukin-7 receptor-α as a key cargo modulating CD4+ T cell proliferation.

CD4+ T cells are pivotal cells playing roles in the orchestration of humoral and cytotoxic immune responses. It is known that CD4+ T cell proliferation relies on autophagy, but identification of the autophagosomal cargo involved is missing. Here we create a transgenic mouse model, to enable direct mapping of the proteinaceous content of autophagosomes in primary cells by LC3 proximity labelling. Interleukin-7 receptor-α, a cytokine receptor mostly found in naïve and memory T cells, is reproducibly detected in autophagosomes of activated CD4+ T cells. Consistently, CD4+ T cells lacking autophagy show increased interleukin-7 receptor-α surface expression, while no defect in internalisation is observed. Mechanistically, excessive surface interleukin-7 receptor-α sequestrates the common gamma chain, impairing the interleukin-2 receptor assembly and downstream signalling crucial for T cell proliferation. This study shows that key autophagy substrates can be reliably identified in this mouse model and help mechanistically unravel autophagy's contribution to healthy physiology and disease.

Autophagosome content profiling using proximity biotinylation proteomics coupled to protease digestion in mammalian cells.

The ascorbate peroxidase APEX2 is commonly used to study the neighborhood of a protein of interest by proximity-dependent biotinylation. Here, we describe a protocol for sample processing compatible with immunoblotting and mass spectrometry, suitable to specifically map the content of autophagosomes and potentially other short-lived endomembrane transport vesicles without the need of subcellular fractionation. By combining live-cell biotinylation with proteinase K digestion of cell homogenates, proteins enriched in membrane-protected compartments can be readily enriched and identified. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Zellner et al. (2021).

ATG4 family proteins drive phagophore growth independently of the LC3/GABARAP lipidation system.

The sequestration of damaged mitochondria within double-membrane structures termed autophagosomes is a key step of PINK1/Parkin mitophagy. The ATG4 family of proteases are thought to regulate autophagosome formation exclusively by processing the ubiquitin-like ATG8 family (LC3/GABARAPs). We discover that human ATG4s promote autophagosome formation independently of their protease activity and of ATG8 family processing. ATG4 proximity networks reveal a role for ATG4s and their proximity partners, including the immune-disease protein LRBA, in ATG9A vesicle trafficking to mitochondria. Artificial intelligence-directed 3D electron microscopy of phagophores shows that ATG4s promote phagophore-ER contacts during the lipid-transfer phase of autophagosome formation. We also show that ATG8 removal during autophagosome maturation does not depend on ATG4 activity. Instead, ATG4s can disassemble ATG8-protein conjugates, revealing a role for ATG4s as deubiquitinating-like enzymes. These findings establish non-canonical roles of the ATG4 family beyond the ATG8 lipidation axis and provide an AI-driven framework for rapid 3D electron microscopy.

Autophagosome content profiling reveals receptor-specific cargo candidates.

Selective autophagy receptors have been implicated in the degradation of cellular constituents of various size and rigidity. However, the identity of protein cargo have largely remained elusive. In our recent study, we combined limited proteolysis-enhanced proximity biotinylation and organelle enrichment with quantitative proteomics to map the inventory of autophagosomes in a manner dependent on six different selective autophagy receptors, namely SQSTM1/p62, NBR1, CALCOCO2/NDP52, OPTN, TAX1BP1 and TOLLIP. Conducting this approach under basal and proteostasis-challenged conditions in mammalian cells led to the identification of various new autophagy substrates of which some were degraded through endosomal microautophagy rather than canonical autophagy dependent on the receptors TOLLIP and SQSTM1, respectively.

Systematically defining selective autophagy receptor-specific cargo using autophagosome content profiling.

Autophagy deficiency in fed conditions leads to the formation of protein inclusions highlighting the contribution of this lysosomal delivery route to cellular proteostasis. Selective autophagy pathways exist that clear accumulated and aggregated ubiquitinated proteins. Receptors for this type of autophagy (aggrephagy) include p62, NBR1, TOLLIP, and OPTN, which possess LC3-interacting regions and ubiquitin-binding domains (UBDs), thus working as a bridge between LC3/GABARAP proteins and ubiquitinated substrates. However, the identity of aggrephagy substrates and the redundancy of aggrephagy and related UBD-containing receptors remains elusive. Here, we combined proximity labeling and organelle enrichment with quantitative proteomics to systematically map the autophagic degradome targeted by UBD-containing receptors under basal and proteostasis-challenging conditions in human cell lines. We identified various autophagy substrates, some of which were differentially engulfed by autophagosomal and endosomal membranes via p62 and TOLLIP, respectively. Overall, this resource will allow dissection of the proteostasis contribution of autophagy to numerous individual proteins.