Residual cognitive and psychosocial functional impairment in outpatients in Greece who responded to conventional antidepressant monotherapy treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD).

BACKGROUND: Patients with MDD may experience diverse residual symptoms after clinical response to antidepressant treatment. Among these symptoms, cognitive problems in executive functioning are prominent and make functional recovery largely an unmet need for MDD patients. In this study we assessed cognitive symptoms and functional impairment in patients with MDD responding to antidepressant treatment. METHODS: This was a national, multi-site, non-interventional, cross-sectional study of depressive symptomatology, cognitive performance and psychosocial functioning in Greek outpatients with MDD who had clinically responded to antidepressant treatment. Both clinician- and patient- rated measures were employed. Symptom remission was assessed with the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) total score (≤12) and functional recovery was assessed with the Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS) score (<6). RESULTS: 335 MDD patients participated in the study. After antidepressant monotherapy approximately 60 % of responders and 40 % of remitted patients did not meet the functional recovery criterion. More than 60 % of responders had concentration difficulties as assessed by MADRS item. Patient reported cognitive symptoms were statistically significantly associated with functionality (ß coefficient = 0.126, p-value = 0.027). LIMITATIONS: Non-interventional study design and lack of a control group or active comparator/reference. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the persistence of decreased cognitive performance, particularly in executive functioning in patients with MDD who have shown response and/or remission to antidepressant treatment. This appears to contribute to psychosocial functional impairment. Patient-reported cognitive and psychosocial functioning impairment should be included in routine clinical monitoring of outcomes in MDD treatments.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Greek version of Saving Inventory-Revised (SI-R) in a non-clinical sample.

Hoarding disorder is a debilitating condition that results from difficulty or inability to discard possessions and the need to save items and leads to cluttered living space. It impedes normal everyday functioning and causes significant distress and dysfunction. The aim of the current study was to validate the Greek version of the Saving Inventory-Revised (SI-R) in a non-clinical sample of 554 Greek adults. Factor structure and psychometric properties were investigated. Common exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to explore the factor structure of the data. A three-factor solution was emerged for the Greek SI-R Which appears to cover the clinical dimensions of the phenomenon and consists of clutter, difficulty discarding and acquisition dimensions. This finding is in accordance with the original English version as well as other adaptations of the instrument in other languages. Some items cross loaded but such findings of cross loading items are also reported in related literature. The Greek version of the SI-R exhibits satisfactory internal consistency and good test retest reliability (stability). The current study also aimed to gather evidence towards the convergent and discriminant validity of Greek SI-R. Findings showed no correlation with measurements of different constructs such as anxiety, depression and non-hoarding obsessive compulsive symptoms but also only partial correlation with measurements of relative clinical constructs, such as hoarding items in obsessive compulsive inventories. Current findings suggest that the Greek SI-R can be a useful tool in the detection and evaluation of hoarding symptoms in Greek population.

[Immune-inflammatory and autoimmune mechanisms in postpartum depression].

Postpartum depression is a debilitating mental disorder with a high prevalence, usually related with a past psychiatric history of major depressive disorder, postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), and perinatal depressive symptoms during gestation. However, the existing literature does not sufficiently elucidate the pathophysiology of this clinical entity which appears in such a crucial period of woman's life. This review aims to search the available data regarding the involvement of immunological and autoimmune mechanisms in its onset. A literature review was conducted using web-based search engines provided by PubMed (for Medline database) and Google Scholar. Manuscripts in English and Greek language were included for the period 19902017. Nowadays, a large body of evidence indicates that depressive disorders are accompanied by activated neuro-immune, neuro-oxidative and neuro-nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways. However, clinical research regarding the biological mechanisms associated with PPD is a tough challenge as pregnancy and puerperium are periods of adaptive changes in pregnant women by definition. Two of the systems that have been studied as potentially contributing to the onset of PPD are: the activation of the Inflammatory Response System (IRS) and the deregulation of the Hypothalamic-PituitaryAdrenal axis (HPA). Controversial data indicate dysregulation of cytokines and other inflammatory agents in patients with PPD, as well as, a close correlation of immune-inflammatory mechanisms and kynurenine pathway. PPD has been closely associated with autoimmune diseases. It is notable that this entity shares many common traits with autoimmune diseases such as the genetic susceptibility, family history, the high correlation with other autoimmune diseases, clinical exacerbations and remissions, women's superiority in prevalence, and the possible re-occurrence during a future pregnancy. These facts suggest that the typical postpartum flare pattern, and other clinical characteristics, point towards an autoimmune etiology for PPD. There are indications that immune-inflammatory and autoimmune mechanisms may be the key to deciphering the complex pathophysiological pathways associated with the onset of PPD. Clinical studies have been insufficient to make clear the causative correlations of the underlying mechanisms involved. Future research could focus on the immune-inflammatory processes associated with the onset of the disease, as well as on potential biomarkers for an early diagnosis and an effective treatment of PPD.

[Electroconvulsive therapy: 80 years of use in psychiatry].

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the oldest among the early biological treatments introduced in psychiatry, and the only one still in use. In this paper we attempt a brief presentation of ECT usage over the last 80 years, since it was originally introduced. It is a safe, well-tolerated, and highly effective treatment option for major psychiatric disorders, such as mood disorders and schizophrenia, especially when there is an acute exacerbation of psychotic symptoms or if catatonic symptoms are prominent. ECT has also been used successfully for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, delirium, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, autism and agitation and depression in demented patients. There are no absolute contraindications. However, it is considered a high risk procedure for patients with increased intracranial pressure, recent myocardial infarction, recent cerebral hemorrhage or stroke, vascular aneurysm, retinal detachment and pheocromocytoma. Modern genetic and neuroimaging techniques have helped clarify possible mechanisms of action of ECT, but much remains unknown. Improvement of this method through a number of technical advancements has contributed in the reduction of side effects. Thus, modified ECT is currently considered as an effective and safe form of treatment even in vulnerable populations such as the geriatric patients, the adolescents and the pregnant patients. The mortality rate is very low, comparable to that of a minor anesthetic procedure. The most common adverse events are headache, nausea, myalgias and postictal delirium while the most severe are the cardiovascular side effects. Of note, the cognitive side effects especially amnesia, although transient, has been the focus of skepticism against the treatment. Major psychiatric disorders are chronic, recurring disorders. The relapse rate after a successful course of ECT without any intervention is extremely high. Pharmacotherapy or continuation ECT reduces equally the relapse rate up to 40%. Continuation and maintenance ECT, in combination with pharmacotherapy, have been successfully used in preventing relapse and recurrence. Gradual tapering off acute ECT treatments and individualized continuation and maintenance ECT treatments based on the needs of each patient seems the optimum clinical practice. Conclusively, despite impressive new developments in pharmacotherapy and in biological non pharmacological treatments ECT remains a valuable, irreplaceable treatment option for debilitating, resistant major psychiatric disorders.

Circulating androgens are associated with mood disturbances in young postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to evaluate the association between circulating androgens and the presence of psychological symptoms in a sample of healthy middle-aged women. METHODS: Psychological and depressive symptoms were evaluated in a total of 207 postmenopausal women, using the Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90R) and the Zung Depression Scale, respectively. We investigated the associations between the SCL-90R and Zung Scale scores, and anthropometric, lifestyle parameters, as well as serum levels of androgens. RESULTS: The free androgen index was positively associated with scores of depression (b-coefficient ± standard error (SE) = 0.2 ± 0.2, p = 0.040), anxiety (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.2 ± 0.2, p = 0.028), anger/aggressiveness (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.3 ± 0.2, p = 0.026), psychotism (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.3 ± 0.1, p = 0.013) as well as with the global index of the SCL-90R scale (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.2 ± 0.1, p = 0.036), while sex hormone binding globulin was negatively associated with depression (b-coefficient ± SE = -0.2 ± 0.0, p = 0.046) and psychotism (b-coefficient ± SE = -0.2 ± 0.0, p = 0.047). These associations were independent of vasomotor symptomatology, smoking and hormone therapy intake and were more pronounced in younger (≤ 5.5 years) compared to older postmenopausal women. Levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate were positively associated with interpersonal sensitivity (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.3 ± 0.3, p = 0.042), psychotism (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.4 ± 0.2, p = 0.007) and the global index (b-coefficient ± SE = 0.3 ± 0.2, p = 0.040) in women < 5.5 years postmenopausal. No significant associations were observed between the Zung or Greene Scale scores and levels of androgens. CONCLUSION: Higher androgenicity was positively associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression in postmenopausal women. These associations were stronger in women closer to the menopausal transition, a finding which may suggest that menopause rather than aging may mediate the association of androgens with mood disorders.

Psychological but not vasomotor symptoms are associated with temperament and character traits.

OBJECTIVE: Recent evidence suggests that climacteric symptoms may be intensified by specific temperament and personality traits in postmenopausal women. In this study we investigate Cloninger's model of personality in relation to menopausal symptoms. METHODS: One-hundred and seventy peri- and postmenopausal women consecutively recruited from a menopause clinic of an academic hospital completed the Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-140) which measures four dimensions of temperament: Harm avoidance, Novelty seeking, Reward dependence and Persistence, as well as three dimensions of character: Self-directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self-transcendence. Menopausal somatic, vasomotor and psychological symptoms were also assessed using the Greene Climacteric Scale. RESULTS: In comparison to the norms of the Greek general population, postmenopausal women presented lower scores in Novelty seeking and Reward dependence and higher scores in Persistence, Self-directedness, Cooperativeness and Self-transcendence. Higher harm avoidance (the inclination to avoid potential punishment, be shy and fearful of uncertainty) significantly correlated with anxiety and depressive symptoms while lower Self-directedness (the ability to have the willpower to adapt to or overcome any changes) correlated with depressive symptoms only. By multivariate regression analysis, higher Harm avoidance and lower Self-directedness were independently associated with the presence of depressive symptoms. No significant associations were observed between TCI-140 traits and somatic or vasomotor symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that most temperament and character traits according to Cloninger's model in peri- and postmenopausal women varied significantly as compared to the general population. Among several traits, high Harm avoidance and low Self-directedness were most strongly associated with psychological climacteric distress but not with somatic and vasomotor symptoms.

[Therapist self-disclosure in cognitive-behavioral therapy].

Social changes and developments in medical science prompted mental health professionals to adopt new roles in relation to their self-disclosure practices. The physician-patient relationship has balanced on a different level, promoting the equity and the autonomy of the second. The contemporary patient is better informed, asks more questions and requires more answers. The boundaries between "professional" and "personal" are less strict and patients believe that they have a right to know whether the personal experiences (educational, clinical, research) of their therapists enable them to understand and help them. Although the latest version of the American Psychological Association's Ethics Code (APA, 2002) offers no explicit guidance on therapist self-disclosure, it incorporates an implicit message that therapists can no longer choose non-disclosure without having considered the issue carefully. Non-disclosure is no longer the easy answer, as it may affect adversely the therapeutic relationship and the therapeutic effect. These new circumstances prompted representatives of all psychotherapeutic orientations to reconsider traditional positions on therapist self-disclosure, to adapt to the diverse needs of the patients and the modern requirements of the therapeutic process and to define the framework within which its conduct is not only safe but also effective. This review attempts to describe the concept of therapist self-disclosure and its use and its functions in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, following a history of the term in other major therapeutic schools (psychoanalytic, client-centered and systemic). As the focus of any psychotherapy is the patient himself, we added reports of patients' experiences by their therapists' disclosures. Those descriptions reveal clearly not only the benefits of therapist self-disclosure but also the dangers posed by improper use. Finally, we attempt to set a framework in the form of proposals, as these result from existing empirical and theoretical research. As therapists will inevitably be confronted with the issue of self-disclosure in their careers, they will have to make decisions on if, what, when, why, to whom, and how to disclose. These guidelines aspire to be of help to therapists so they can use self-disclosure efficiently and ethically and to minimize potential risks.

Low dosage lithium augmentation in venlafaxine resistant depression: an open-label study.

Lithium augmentation is one of the best studied strategies for resistant depression. The lithium dosage usually given is around 900 mg/day and plasma level is maintained in the range of 0.5-0.8 mEq/L. However, the administration of lithium in this dosage necessitates monitoring of plasma concentration and increases the risk of toxicity and side effects. Since it has been shown that low lithium levels increase serotonin turnover and enhance serotonin neurotransmission, we thought it of interest to assess the efficacy of low dosage lithium augmentation for patients with resistant depression. Fifty one patients suffering from severe unipolar or bipolar depression who had failed to respond to treatment with venlafaxine 300-375 mg/day were included in the study and treated as outpatients. Patients had previously been exposed to unsuccessful treatment with various antidepressants, mostly SSRIs. After a washout period for previously administered antidepressants of one week, the dosage of venlafaxine was rapidly titrated to 300 or 375 mg/day, corresponding to about 5 mg/kg. The dose remained stable during the next six weeks. Additional antipsychotic medication was allowed to treat psychotic symptoms. Forty seven severely depressed patients who failed to respond to 300-375 mg/day venlafaxine were, in addition, given lithium carbonate in low dosage (300-450 mg/day). The Clinical Global Impression Improvement scale was used as the treatment outcome. A score of 1 or 2 was considered as non-response. All patients gave informed consent to participate in the study. Ratings were performed at baseline and after 1,2 and 5 weeks. Lithium plasma concentration measurements were performed after 1 and 4 weeks. After 5 weeks of augmentation, 51% of the patients were rated as "much" or "very much" improved. Bipolar patients showed a better response than unipolar (64.3% vs 45.5%, p<0.038). Most patients (76%) showed a rapid response (up tp 7 days), and only 2 patients (4.6%) responded after more than 2 weeks The mean lithium plasma level was 0.33±0.09 mEq/L. No significant differences were found in treatment response with regard to sex, family history, psychotic symptomatology and suicidal ideation. No troublesome side effects were reported. Our results show that treatment augmentation with low lithium dosage may be as effective as augmentation with higher dosage, is well tolerated and does not necessitate monitoring of plasma level. Hence, an initial trial of ugmentation at low dosage lithium may be the preferred first choice in non-emergent situations. The low dosage also minimizes the risk of side effects and drug-drug interactions. Prospective controlled studies to confirm our findings are needed as are larger scale comparisons with therapeutic dose lithium augmentation.

[Parenting capacity of mothers with schizophrenia].

Recent studies indicate that the pregnancy rates of mothers with schizophrenia do not differ significantly from those of the general population. Mothers' severe mental illness, combined with poor social support and comorbidity, may significantly affect her parenting capacity. However, the poor quality of parenting by psychotic mothers should not be taken for granted, in advance. Some of them may become excellent parents while other may abuse their children and finally lose custody because of this. The parenting capacity is significantly influenced by the existing insight of patient-parent's disease. Assessing the parenting capacity comprises the measurement of insight and of the risk of child abuse as well. Factors associated with increased risk for child abuse are: (a) active psychiatric symptomatology, (b) history of violent behavior in the past, (c) maternal history of abuse during childhood, (d) dangerous domestic environment, (e) stressful events and poor social support to the mother and (f) unrealistic parental expectations. These factors should be assessed both clinically and by using the appropriate psychometric tools. Tools which have been widely used for this purpose are: (a) "Schedule for Assessment of Insight-SAI", (b) "Childhood Trauma Interview", (c) "Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment Inventory-HOME" and "Home Screening Questionnaire -HSQ", (d) "Parental Stress Inventory-PSI", "Swedish Parenthood Stress Questionnaire-SPSQ", "Arizona Social Support Inventory" (e) "Parent Opinion Questionnaire-POQ". Interventions to ensure a more adequate parenting capacity should be focused on family planning: mothers with severe mental illness have poor knowledge about reproductive and contraception issues. Their pregnancies are mostly not planned. It is important for the family planning to be tailored according to the specific needs of schizophrenic mothers and to take into account the following issues: (a) the severity and the duration/chronicity of the disease, (b) the onset of the disease in relation to the gestational period, (c) the education of mothers with schizophrenia considering their double patient/mother role. An educational program should train the mother to recognize early signs of the disease, comply with medication, increase her empathy towards the baby and reduce any distorted perceptions about it. The treating, assessing, educating and preventing programs and interventions of mental health services should be continuous and supportive.

[Psychotherapeutic approaches of depression].

All schools of psychotherapy have developed specific therapeutic approaches for depression. Common elements exist but still there are differences as well. In this we will review the following approaches, mostly cited in the depression therapy literature: Psychoanalytic, Behavioral, Cognitive and Interpersonal. Recent studies show that psychotherapy is ef fective in depression, even in the elderly and in hospitalized patients. Psychotherapy results are very good in mild to moderate depression. In combination with pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy shows good results in severe depression. It has an important role in preventing new episodes. Recent functional imaging studies show how psychotherapy can affect biological brain structure and function. However, there are still methodological issues that have to be dealt with in psychotherapy research.

[Disorders of sweating in psychiatry].

During the past few years psychiatric research has focused its interest on the disorders of sweating: hyperidrosis and hypoidrosis/anhidrosis. Hyperhydrosis is the most commonly encountered in practice. In this situation, the total amount of sweat produced is greater than needed for thermoregulation. The disorders of sweating receive the research attention of many medical specialties. This trend is attributed to their high prevalence, their relation with many psychiatric disorders, their effects on the quality of life of patients, but also of the new therapeutic approaches that have been developed (the use of botulinum toxin, surgical methods, etc). Balancing among different suggestions for the treatment of hyperhidrosis, the psychiatrist must be thoughtful for the therapeutic approach. The cases of hypohidrosis and anhidrosis are less frequently mentioned, for which patients hardly ever complain. They are characterized by reduced sweating below the amount needed to cool down an elevated body temperature, or even absent sweating. They may constitute an urgent medical situation leading to hyperthermia and death. Overall, disorders in sweating may be caused by pharmaceutical or hormonal causes. Many pharmaceutical and psychotherapeutic methods have been used for treatment. Therefore, we believe it is useful for the clinical psychiatrist to keep in mind the psychiatric and psychological aspects of the disorders of sweating, and their impact on patient diagnosis, course and treatment.

[A study of irritability in menopausal women].

Despite the fact that irritability is frequently the main presenting complaint of perimenopausal and postmenopausal women, studies specifically researching irritability in this population are scant. One hundred sixty three (163) peri- and postmenopausal women non-HT users, attending a menopause clinic, were included in this cross-sectional study. The investigation focused on whether the occurrence of inward and outward irritability in menopause is associated with various menopausal parameters, such as vasomotor symptoms, insomnia, menopausal status, hormone levels, and with the presence of chronic disease. Furthermore, we examined the possible association of inward and outward irritability with measures of anxiety and depression. Outward and inward irritability of peri- and postmenopausal women seem to be related to chronic disease, a factor that may be partially influenced by the older age of menopausal women. Outwardly directed irritability is found to be related to FSH and LH levels, independently of specific menopausal symptoms, such as vasomotor symptoms or insomnia. Outward irritability was found to be positively correlated with depressive symptomatology, whereas inward irritability correlated with both anxiety and higher depressive symptomatology.

Set shifting deficits in melancholic vs. non-melancholic depression: preliminary findings.

Twenty-two patients with major depressive disorder, 11 of them with melancholic features, and 11 controls were investigated with CANTAB subtests focusing in visual memory/learning and executive functions. Melancholic patients performed worse than the other groups in all tasks and manifested a significant impairment in set shifting. The results are discussed in association with prefrontal dysfunction.

Hip dysplasia following a case of olanzapine exposed pregnancy: a questionable association.

This is a case report of a 33 year old woman with a history of psychosis, who presented to the women's mental health clinic for consultation at the 12(th) week of gestation, having already received olanzapine throughout the first trimester. She was followed from that point on at our clinic and remained on small doses of olanzapine for the rest of her pregnancy, which was uncomplicated. She gave birth to a healthy female, which at the age of three months was diagnosed with developmental dysplasia of the hip and subsequently received appropriate treatment with favorable outcome. The possibility of the association of this congenital dysplasia with the use of olanzapine during pregnancy is further discussed in this paper.

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with docetaxel and cisplatin in patients with high-risk resectable bladder carcinoma: long term results.

OBJECTIVES: Neoadjuvant chemotherapy has been used to improve outcome after cystectomy or for selection for bladder preservation in patients with bladder cancer. We have shown encouraging results using docetaxel and cisplatin in patients with advanced urothelial cancer. We are reporting the results of a phase II study using this combination as neoadjuvant treatment in patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer. METHODS: Fifty patients were treated with docetaxel and cisplatin at 75 mg/m2 every 3 weeks for 3 cycles prior to cystectomy. Median follow-up was 70.2 months. RESULTS: Chemotherapy was well tolerated. 5-year survival and progression-free survival (PFS) were 51.92% (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 37.76-66.08) and 52.47% (95%CI: 37.99-66.95). Multivariate analysis showed that clinical stage (cT) < or = 3a was associated with improved 5-year survival (86.42% vs. 40.81%, p = 0.027). Forty one patients underwent cystectomy. No tumor was found in 15 cases (36.6%). 5-year survival was 60.34% (95%CI: 52.2-68.48) and PFS was 57.11% (95%CI: 41.29-72.93). Absence of residual tumor was associated with improved 5-year survival (93.33% vs. 40.72%, p = 0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with docetaxel and cisplatin is feasible and produced high pathological complete remission rate and excellent outcome in patients with no residual tumor.

Olanzapine and obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

Clozapine and risperidone have been implicated in the development of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. We present three cases in which olanzapine caused a significant exacerbation of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia (two cases) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (one case).

Administration of citalopram before ECT: seizure duration and hormone responses.

From theoretical and clinical perspectives, it is important to know if selected serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), often administered concurrently with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), modify seizure duration. In a study with a double-blind, cross-over design, the authors evaluated the effect of citalopram, the most selective SSRI available, on the length of electrically induced seizures and on hormone secretion during ECT. Ten depressed women were given either 20 mg citalopram or placebo orally 2 hours before the third and fourth ECT sessions. Seizure duration was assessed by the cuff technique and from electroencephalographic recordings, whereas blood for prolactin, thyrotropin, and cortisol assessment was sampled before ECT and 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 60 minutes after ECT. No adverse effects after the administration of citalopram were recorded. The length of seizures was not statistically different in the citalopram (29.3+/-8.4 seconds) and placebo sessions (28.2+/-9.4 seconds). Neither pre-ECT plasma hormone levels measured 2 hours after citalopram or placebo administration nor the patterns of ECT-induced hormone secretions differed between the two drug and placebo conditions. The lack of effect of citalopram on hormones in this study may be a result of possible deficiencies of the monoaminergic (i.e., serotoninergic) systems in depression. Although safety and efficacy issues were not fully addressed by coadministering citalopram for the long term and throughout the course of ECT, these findings support the view that challenges the typical clinical practice of discontinuing SSRIs before ECT.

Blunted TSH response to TRH and seizure duration in ECT.

The relationship between the thyrotropin (TSH) response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and the duration of seizures induced by electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in depressed patients was investigated. In a balanced-order cross-over design, 16 depressed women were given 0.4 mg TRH or placebo intravenously, 20 min before ECT in the first two sessions. In the third ECT session TRH was given just prior to ECT. Thyrotropin (TSH) levels at various sampling times, as well as the duration of seizures, were measured. There was a significant inverse correlation between plasma TSH concentrations 20 min after TRH administration (deltaTSH) and seizure duration. Furthermore, when patients were categorized according to their TSH response to TRH, the group with blunted responses (deltaTSH <6 microIU/ mL, n = 7) had a longer seizure time during ECT than the group with non-blunted responses (deltaTSH > 6 microIU/mL, n = 9). Finally, the seizure duration in the group with blunted TSH responses was reduced significantly when TRH was co-administered, while it remained unchanged in the group with non-blunted TSH responses. It is concluded that a blunted TSH response to TRH might indicate a seizure susceptibility as measured by the duration of seizures induced by ECT. The fact that TRH pre-administration had a reducing effect suggests that this substance might be involved in the pathophysiology of ECT-induced seizures.