Gold nanoparticles-conjugation of irisin enhances therapeutic effect by improving cardiac function and attenuating inflammation in sepsis.

Irisin is considered to be a promising therapeutic approach for cardiac depression and inflammatory disorders. The short half-life of irisin impeded its use and drug efficacy in the treatment. This study aimed to examine if pegylated gold nanoparticles-conjugated to irisin would improve therapeutic effects in cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis in mice. Recombinant irisin were conjugated to a pegylated gold nanoparticle, which was given to mice exposed to CLP. The cecal ligation procedure and sham on mice were operated and assigned to one of following five groups: (I) CLP group: The mouse models underwent the CLP surgical procedure and received only vehicle saline treatment (n = 5); (II) CLP + soluble Irisin: The mouse underwent the CLP and received an intramuscular injection (i.m) (TA) injection of 1 ug of soluble irisin into each tibialis anterior (TA) leg (n = 5); (III) CLP + Gold nanoparticle-conjugated to Irisin: The mouse models underwent the CLP and received an i.m (TA) injection of 1 µg of Gold nanoparticle-irisin via intramuscular injection (TA) into each leg (n = 5); (IV) CLP + Gold nanoparticles- conjugated to IgG: The mouse underwent the CLP and received an i.m (TA) injection of gold nanoparticles conjugated to IgG (n = 5). (V) Sham: The mouse underwent the surgical operation without conducting the CLP (n = 10). The post-operated animals were observed for one week, and survival rates were estimated. Echocardiography was performed to measure cardiac function at 12 h following CLP. TUNEL was employed to detect apoptosis in both cardiac and skeletal muscles; histology was conducted to assess tissue injury in muscles. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was conducted to examine release of interleukin 6 (IL6) and the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha. Compared to the CLP control, soluble irisin treatment improved cardiac function recovery, as indicated by the fractional shortening (FS) and ejection fraction (EF). Irisin treatment exhibited reduced IL6 and TNF-alpha release in association with less apoptosis, lower muscle injury index and improved survival post-CLP. However, compared to soluble irisin treatment, gold nanoparticles-conjugated to irisin showed a significant improvement in cardiac function, suppression of apoptosis, reduced IL6 and TNF-alpha releases, decreased muscle injury and an improved survival rate of post-CLP. This study reveals that gold nanoparticles-conjugated irisin can serve to improve irisin's therapeutic effects over a longer course of treatment.

Inhibition of integrin alpha v/beta 5 mitigates the protective effect induced by irisin in hemorrhage.

INTRODUCTION: Irisin plays an important role in regulating tissue stress, cardiac function, and inflammation. Integrin αvß5 was recently identified as a receptor for irisin to elicit its physiologic function. It remains unknown whether integrin αvß5 is required for irisin's function in modulating the physiologic response to hemorrhage. The objective of this study is to examine if integrin αvß5 contributes to the effects of irisin during the hemorrhagic response. METHODS: Hemorrhage was induced in mice by achieving a mean arterial blood pressure of 35-45 mmHg for one hour, followed by two hours of resuscitation. Irisin (0.5  µg/kg) was administrated to assess its pharmacologic effects in hemorrhage. Cilengitide, a cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp peptide (cRGDyK) which is an inhibitor of integrin αvß5, or control RGDS (1 mg/kg) was administered with irisin. In another cohort of mice, the irisin-induced protective effect was examined after knocking down integrin ß5 with nanoparticle delivery of integrin ß5 sgRNA using CRSIPR/Cas-9 gene editing. Cardiac function and hemodynamics were measured using echocardiography and femoral artery catheterization, respectively. Systemic cytokine releases were measured using Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Histological analyses were used to determine tissue damage in myocardium, skeletal muscles, and lung tissues. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) was carried out to assess apoptosis in tissues. RESULTS: Hemorrhage induced reduction of integrin αvß5 in skeletal muscles and repressed recovery of cardiac performance and hemodynamics. Irisin treatment led to significantly improved cardiac function, which was abrogated by treatment with Cilengitide or knockdown of integrin ß5. Furthermore, irisin resulted in a marked suppression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1), muscle edema, and inflammatory cells infiltration in myocardium and skeletal muscles, which was attenuated by Cilengitide or knockdown of integrin ß5. Irisin-induced reduction of apoptosis in the myocardium, skeletal muscles, and lung, which were attenuated by either the inhibition of integrin αvß5, or knockdown of integrin ß5. CONCLUSION: Integrin αvß5 plays an important role for irisin in modulating the protective effect during hemorrhage.

A structural and functional comparison between two recombinant human lubricin proteins: Recombinant human proteoglycan-4 (rhPRG4) vs ECF843.

Proteoglycan 4 (PRG4, lubricin) is a mucin-like glycoprotein present on the ocular surface that has both boundary lubricating and anti-inflammatory properties. Full-length recombinant human PRG4 (rhPRG4) has been shown to be clinically effective in improving signs and symptoms of dry eye disease (DED). In vitro, rhPRG4 has been shown to reduce inflammation-induced cytokine production and NFκB activity in corneal epithelial cells, as well as to bind to and inhibit MMP-9 activity. A different form of recombinant human lubricin (ECF843), produced from the same cell line as rhPRG4 but manufactured using a different process, was recently assessed in a DED clinical trial. However, ECF843 did not significantly improve signs or symptoms of DED compared to vehicle. Initial published characterization of ECF843 showed it had a smaller hydrodynamic diameter and was less negatively charged than native PRG4. Further examination of the structural and functional properties of ECF843 and rhPRG4 could contribute to the understanding of what led to their disparate clinical efficacy. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize and compare rhPRG4 and ECF843 in vitro, both biophysically and functionally. Hydrodynamic diameter and charge were measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and zeta potential, respectively. Size and molecular weight was determined for individual species by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) with in-line DLS and multi-angle light scattering (MALS). Bond structure was measured by Raman spectroscopy, and sedimentation properties were measured by analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC). Functionally, MMP-9 inhibition was measured using a commercial MMP-9 activity kit, coefficient of friction was measured using an established boundary lubrication test at a latex-glass interface, and collagen 1-binding ability was measured by quart crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCMD). Additionally, the ability of rhPRG4 and ECF843 to inhibit urate acid crystal formation and cell adhesion was assessed. ECF843 had a significantly smaller hydrodynamic diameter and was less negatively charged than rhPRG4, as assessed by DLS and zeta potential. Size was further explored with SEC-DLS-MALS, which indicated that while rhPRG4 had 3 main peaks, corresponding to monomer, dimer, and multimer as expected, ECF843 had 2 peaks that were similar in size and molecular weight compared to rhPRG4's monomer peak and a third peak that was significantly smaller in both size and molar mass than the corresponding peak of rhPRG4. Raman spectroscopy demonstrated that ECF843 had significantly more disulfide bonds, which are functionally determinant structures, relative to the carbon-carbon backbone compared to rhPRG4, and AUC indicated that ECF843 was more compact than rhPRG4. Functionally, ECF843 was significantly less effective at inhibiting MMP-9 activity and functioning as a boundary lubricant compared to rhPRG4, as well as being slower to bind to collagen 1. Additionally, ECF843 was significantly less effective at inhibiting urate acid crystal formation and at preventing cell adhesion. Collectively, these data demonstrate ECF843 and rhPRG4 are significantly different in both structure and function. Given that a protein's structure sets the foundation for its interactions with other molecules and tissues in vivo, which ultimately determine its function, these differences most likely contributed to the disparate DED clinical trial results.

Irisin deficiency exacerbates diet-induced insulin resistance and cardiac dysfunction in type II diabetes in mice.

Irisin is involved in the regulation of a variety of physiological conditions, metabolism, and survival. We and others have demonstrated that irisin contributes critically to modulation of insulin resistance and the improvement of cardiac function. However, whether the deletion of irisin will regulate cardiac function and insulin sensitivity in type II diabetes remains unclear. We utilized the CRISPR/Cas-9 genome-editing system to delete irisin globally in mice and high-fat diet (HFD)-induced type II diabetes model. We found that irisin deficiency did not result in developmental abnormality during the adult stage, which illustrates normal cardiac function and insulin sensitivity assessed by glucose tolerance test in the absence of stress. The ultrastructural analysis of the transmission electronic microscope (TEM) indicated that deletion of irisin did not change the morphology of mitochondria in myocardium. Gene expression profiling showed that several key signaling pathways related to integrin signaling, extracellular matrix, and insulin-like growth factors signaling were coordinately downregulated by deletion of irisin. However, when mice were fed a high-fat diet and chow food for 16 wk, ablation of irisin in mice exposed to HFD resulted in much more severe insulin resistance, metabolic derangements, profound cardiac dysfunction, and hypertrophic response and remodeling as compared with wild-type control mice. Taken together, our results indicate that the loss of irisin exacerbates insulin resistance, metabolic disorders, and cardiac dysfunction in response to HFD and promotes myocardial remodeling and hypertrophic response. This evidence reveals the molecular evidence and the critical role of irisin in modulating insulin resistance and cardiac function in type II diabetes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY By utilizing the CRISPR/Cas-9 genome-editing system and high-fat diet (HFD)-induced type II diabetes model, our results provide direct evidence showing that the loss of irisin exacerbates cardiac dysfunction and insulin resistance while promoting myocardial remodeling and a hypertrophic response in HFD-induced diabetes. This study provides new insight into understanding the molecular evidence and the critical role of irisin in modulating insulin resistance and cardiac function in type II diabetes.

Irisin Preserves Cardiac Performance and Insulin Sensitivity in Response to Hemorrhage.

Irisin, a cleaved product of the fibronectin type III domain containing protein-5, is produced in the muscle tissue, which plays an important role in modulating insulin resistance. However, it remains unknown if irisin provides a protective effect against the detrimental outcomes of hemorrhage. Hemorrhages were simulated in male CD-1 mice to achieve a mean arterial blood pressure of 35-45 mmHg, followed by resuscitation. Irisin (50 ng/kg) and the vehicle (saline) were administrated at the start of resuscitation. Cardiac function was assessed by echocardiography, and hemodynamics were measured through femoral artery catheterization. A glucose tolerance test was used to evaluate insulin sensitivity. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to detect inflammatory factors in the muscles and blood serum. Western blot was carried out to assess the irisin production in skeletal muscles. Histological analyses were used to determine tissue damage and active-caspase 3 apoptotic signals. The hemorrhage suppressed cardiac performance, as indicated by a reduced ejection fraction and fractional shortening, which was accompanied by enhanced insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. Furthermore, the hemorrhage resulted in a marked decrease in irisin and an increase in the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1). Additionally, the hemorrhage caused marked edema, inflammatory cell infiltration and active-caspase 3 positive signals in skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles. Irisin treatment led to a significant improvement in the cardiac function of animals exposed to a hemorrhage. In addition, irisin treatment improved insulin sensitivity, which is consistent with the suppressed inflammatory cytokine secretion elicited by hemorrhages. Furthermore, hemorrhage-induced tissue edema, inflammatory cell infiltration, and active-caspase 3 positive signaling were attenuated by irisin treatment. The results suggest that irisin protects against damage from a hemorrhage through the modulation of insulin sensitivity.

Quadruped Gait and Regulation of Apoptotic Factors in Tibiofemoral Joints following Intra-Articular rhPRG4 Injection in Prg4 Null Mice.

Camptodactyly-arthropathy-coxa vara-pericarditis (CACP) syndrome leads to diarthrodial joint arthropathy and is caused by the absence of lubricin (proteoglycan 4-PRG4), a surface-active mucinous glycoprotein responsible for lubricating articular cartilage. In this study, mice lacking the orthologous gene Prg4 served as a model that recapitulates the destructive arthrosis that involves biofouling of cartilage by serum proteins in lieu of Prg4. This study hypothesized that Prg4-deficient mice would demonstrate a quadruped gait change and decreased markers of mitochondrial dyscrasia, following intra-articular injection of both hindlimbs with recombinant human PRG4 (rhPRG4). Prg4-/- (N = 44) mice of both sexes were injected with rhPRG4 and gait alterations were studied at post-injection day 3 and 6, before joints were harvested for immunohistochemistry for caspase-3 activation. Increased stance and propulsion was shown at 3 days post-injection in male mice. There were significantly fewer caspase-3-positive chondrocytes in tibiofemoral cartilage from rhPRG4-injected mice. The mitochondrial gene Mt-tn, and myosin heavy (Myh7) and light chains (Myl2 and Myl3), known to play a cytoskeletal stabilizing role, were significantly upregulated in both sexes (RNA-Seq) following IA rhPRG4. Chondrocyte mitochondrial dyscrasias attributable to the arthrosis in CACP may be mitigated by IA rhPRG4. In a supporting in vitro crystal microbalance experiment, molecular fouling by albumin did not block the surface activity of rhPRG4.

Proteoglycan-4 is an essential regulator of synovial macrophage polarization and inflammatory macrophage joint infiltration.

BACKGROUND: Synovial macrophages perform a multitude of functions that include clearance of cell debris and foreign bodies, tissue immune surveillance, and resolution of inflammation. The functional diversity of macrophages is enabled by distinct subpopulations that express unique surface markers. Proteoglycan-4 (PRG4) is an important regulator of synovial hyperplasia and fibrotic remodeling, and the involvement of macrophages in PRG4's synovial role is yet to be defined. Our objectives were to study the PRG4's importance to macrophage homeostatic regulation in the synovium and infiltration of pro-inflammatory macrophages in acute synovitis and investigate whether macrophages mediated synovial fibrosis in Prg4 gene-trap (Prg4GT/GT) murine knee joints. METHODS: Macrophage phenotyping in Prg4GT/GT and Prg4+/+ joints was performed by flow cytometry using pan-macrophage markers, e.g., CD11b, F4/80, and surface markers of M1 macrophages (CD86) and M2 macrophages (CD206). Characterizations of the various macrophage subpopulations were performed in 2- and 6-month-old animals. The expression of inflammatory markers, IL-6, and iNOS in macrophages that are CD86+ and/or CD206+ was studied. The impact of Prg4 recombination on synovial macrophage populations of 2- and 6-month-old animals and infiltration of pro-inflammatory macrophages in response to a TLR2 agonist challenge was determined. Macrophages were depleted using liposomal clodronate and synovial membrane thickness, and the expression of fibrotic markers α-SMA, PLOD2, and collagen type I (COL-I) was assessed using immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Total macrophages in Prg4GT/GT joints were higher than Prg4+/+ joints (p<0.0001) at 2 and 6 months, and the percentages of CD86+/CD206- and CD86+/CD206+ macrophages increased in Prg4GT/GT joints at 6 months (p<0.0001), whereas the percentage of CD86-/CD206+ macrophages decreased (p<0.001). CD86+/CD206- and CD86+/CD206+ macrophages expressed iNOS and IL-6 compared to CD86-/CD206+ macrophages (p<0.0001). Prg4 re-expression limited the accumulation of CD86+ macrophages (p<0.05) and increased CD86-/CD206+ macrophages (p<0.001) at 6 months. Prg4 recombination attenuated synovial recruitment of pro-inflammatory macrophages in 2-month-old animals (p<0.001). Clodronate-mediated macrophage depletion reduced synovial hyperplasia, α-SMA, PLOD2, and COL-I expressions in the synovium (p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: PRG4 regulates the accumulation and homeostatic balance of macrophages in the synovium. In its absence, the synovium becomes populated with M1 macrophages. Furthermore, macrophages exert an effector role in synovial fibrosis in Prg4GT/GT animals.

The Essential Role of PRAK in Preserving Cardiac Function and Insulin Resistance in High-Fat Diet-Induced Diabetes.

Regulated/activated protein kinase (PRAK) plays a crucial role in modulating biological function. However, the role of PRAK in mediating cardiac dysfunction and metabolic disorders remains unclear. We examined the effects of deletion of PRAK on modulating cardiac function and insulin resistance in mice exposed to a high-fat diet (HFD). Wild-type and PRAK-/- mice at 8 weeks old were exposed to either chow food or HFD for a consecutive 16 weeks. Glucose tolerance tests and insulin tolerance tests were employed to assess insulin resistance. Echocardiography was employed to assess myocardial function. Western blot was used to determine the molecular signaling involved in phosphorylation of IRS-1, AMPKα, ERK-44/42, and irisin. Real time-PCR was used to assess the hypertrophic genes of the myocardium. Histological analysis was employed to assess the hypertrophic response, interstitial myocardial fibrosis, and apoptosis in the heart. Western blot was employed to determine cellular signaling pathway. HFD-induced metabolic stress is indicated by glucose intolerance and insulin intolerance. PRAK knockout aggravated insulin resistance, as indicated by glucose intolerance and insulin intolerance testing as compared with wild-type littermates. As compared with wild-type mice, hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia were manifested in PRAK-knockout mice following high-fat diet intervention. High-fat diet intervention displayed a decline in fractional shortening and ejection fraction. However, deletion of PRAK exacerbated the decline in cardiac function as compared with wild-type mice following HFD treatment. In addition, PRAK knockout mice enhanced the expression of myocardial hypertrophic genes including ANP, BNP, and ßMHC in HFD treatment, which was also associated with an increase in cardiomyocyte size and interstitial fibrosis. Western blot indicated that deletion of PRAK induces decreases in phosphorylation of IRS-1, AMPKα, and ERK44/42 as compared with wild-type controls. Our finding indicates that deletion of PRAK promoted myocardial dysfunction, cardiac remodeling, and metabolic disorders in response to HFD.

Proteoglycan-4 regulates fibroblast to myofibroblast transition and expression of fibrotic genes in the synovium.

BACKGROUND: Synovial tissue fibrosis is common in advanced OA with features including the presence of stress fiber-positive myofibroblasts and deposition of cross-linked collagen type-I. Proteoglycan-4 (PRG4) is a mucinous glycoprotein secreted by synovial fibroblasts and is a major component of synovial fluid. PRG4 is a ligand of the CD44 receptor. Our objective was to examine the role of PRG4-CD44 interaction in regulating synovial tissue fibrosis in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: OA synoviocytes were treated with TGF-ß ± PRG4 for 24 h and α-SMA content was determined using immunofluorescence. Rhodamine-labeled rhPRG4 was incubated with OA synoviocytes ± anti-CD44 or isotype control antibodies and cellular uptake of rhPRG4 was determined following a 30-min incubation and α-SMA expression following a 24-h incubation. HEK-TGF-ß cells were treated with TGF-ß ± rhPRG4 and Smad3 phosphorylation was determined using immunofluorescence and TGF-ß/Smad pathway activation was determined colorimetrically. We probed for stress fibers and focal adhesions (FAs) in TGF-ß-treated murine fibroblasts and fibroblast migration was quantified ± rhPRG4. Synovial expression of fibrotic markers: α-SMA, collagen type-I, and PLOD2 in Prg4 gene-trap (Prg4GT) and recombined Prg4GTR animals were studied at 2 and 9 months of age. Synovial expression of α-SMA and PLOD2 was determined in 2-month-old Prg4GT/GT&Cd44-/- and Prg4GTR/GTR&Cd44-/- animals. RESULTS: PRG4 reduced α-SMA content in OA synoviocytes (p < 0.001). rhPRG4 was internalized by OA synoviocytes via CD44 and CD44 neutralization attenuated rhPRG4's antifibrotic effect (p < 0.05). rhPRG4 reduced pSmad3 signal in HEK-TGF-ß cells (p < 0.001) and TGF-ß/Smad pathway activation (p < 0.001). rhPRG4 reduced the number of stress fiber-positive myofibroblasts, FAs mean size, and cell migration in TGF-ß-treated NIH3T3 fibroblasts (p < 0.05). rhPRG4 inhibited fibroblast migration in a macrophage and fibroblast co-culture model without altering active or total TGF-ß levels. Synovial tissues of 9-month-old Prg4GT/GT animals had higher α-SMA, collagen type-I, and PLOD2 (p < 0.001) content and Prg4 re-expression reduced these markers (p < 0.01). Prg4 re-expression also reduced α-SMA and PLOD2 staining in CD44-deficient mice. CONCLUSION: PRG4 is an endogenous antifibrotic modulator in the joint and its effect on myofibroblast formation is partially mediated by CD44, but CD44 is not required to demonstrate an antifibrotic effect in vivo.

p38-Regulated/activated protein kinase plays a pivotal role in protecting heart against ischemia-reperfusion injury and preserving cardiac performance.

p38-Regulated/activated protein kinase (PRAK) plays a critical role in modulating cellular survival and biological function. However, the function of PRAK in the regulation of myocardial ischemic injury remains unknown. This study is aimed at determining the function of PRAK in modulating myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury and myocardial remodeling following myocardial infarction. Hearts were isolated from adult male homozygous PRAK-/- and wild-type mice and subjected to global ischemia-reperfusion injury in Langendorff isolated heart perfusion. PRAK-/- mice mitigated postischemic ventricular functional recovery and decreased coronary effluent. Moreover, the infarct size in the perfused heart was significantly increased by deletion of PRAK. Western blot showed that deletion of PRAK decreased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2. Furthermore, the effect of deletion of PRAK on myocardial function and remodeling was also examined on infarcted mice in which the left anterior descending artery was ligated. Echocardiography indicated that PRAK-/- mice had accelerated left ventricular systolic dysfunction, which was associated with increased hypertrophy in the infarcted area. Deletion of PRAK augmented interstitial fibrosis and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick-end labeling (TUNEL)-positive myocytes. Furthermore, immunostaining analysis shows that CD31-postive vascular density and α-smooth muscle actin capillary staining decreased significantly in PRAK-/- mice. These results indicate that deletion of PRAK enhances susceptibility to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, attenuates cardiac performance and angiogenesis, and increases interstitial fibrosis and apoptosis in the infarcted hearts.

Irisin promotes cardiac progenitor cell-induced myocardial repair and functional improvement in infarcted heart.

Irisin, a newly identified hormone and cardiokine, is critical for modulating body metabolism. New evidence indicates that irisin protects the heart against myocardial ischemic injury. However, whether irisin enhances cardiac progenitor cell (CPC)-induced cardiac repair remains unknown. This study examines the effect of irisin on CPC-induced cardiac repair when these cells are introduced into the infarcted myocardium. Nkx2.5+ CPC stable cells were isolated from mouse embryonic stem cells. Nkx2.5 + CPCs (0.5 × 10 6 ) were reintroduced into the infarcted myocardium using PEGlylated fibrin delivery. The mouse myocardial infarction model was created by permanent ligation of the left anterior descending (LAD) artery. Nkx2.5 + CPCs were pretreated with irisin at a concentration of 5 ng/ml in vitro for 24 hr before transplantation. Myocardial functions were evaluated by echocardiographic measurement. Eight weeks after engraftment, Nkx2.5 + CPCs improved ventricular function as evident by an increase in ejection fraction and fractional shortening. These findings are concomitant with the suppression of cardiac hypertrophy and attenuation of myocardial interstitial fibrosis. Transplantation of Nkx2.5 + CPCs promoted cardiac regeneration and neovascularization, which were increased with the pretreatment of Nkx2.5 + CPCs with irisin. Furthermore, irisin treatment promoted myocyte proliferation as indicated by proliferative markers Ki67 and phosphorylated histone 3 and decreased apoptosis. Additionally, irisin resulted in a marked reduction of histone deacetylase 4 and increased p38 acetylation in cultured CPCs. These results indicate that irisin promoted Nkx2.5 + CPC-induced cardiac regeneration and functional improvement and that irisin serves as a novel therapeutic approach for stem cells in cardiac repair.

Transgenic overexpression of active HDAC4 in the heart attenuates cardiac function and exacerbates remodeling in infarcted myocardium.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play a critical role in modulating cardiac function and ischemic injury. HDAC4 was found to be elevated and activated in response to injury. However, whether HDAC4 mediates cardiac function is currently unknown. In this study, we created myocyte-specific activated HDAC4 transgenic mice to examine the role of HDAC4 in mediating cardiac function during development and response to infarction. There are no differences in cardiac function and gross phenotype between wild-type and cardiomyocyte-specific HDAC4 transgenic mice at 1 mo of age. However, cardiac dysfunction and vascular growth deficiency were displayed in 6-mo-old HDAC4-transgenic mice compared with wild-type mice. Activation of HDAC4 increased heart and myocyte size, hypertrophic proteins, and interstitial fibrosis in 6-mo-old mice but not in 1-mo-old mice. To further define whether activated HDAC4 in the heart could impact myocardial function and remodeling, myocardial infarction was created in both wild-type and cardiomyocyte-specific HDAC4-transgenic mice. In myocardial infarction, the overexpression of activated HDAC4 exacerbated cardiac dysfunction and augmented cardiac remodeling and interstitial fibrosis, which was associated with the reduction of cardiokines in the heart. These results indicate the activation of HDAC4 as a crucial regulator for cardiac function in development and myocardial infarction. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We created myocyte-specific activated HDAC4-transgenic mice to examine the function of HDAC4 in mediating cardiac function. HDAC4 overexpression led to cardiac dysfunction, which was associated with increased hypertrophy and myocardial fibrosis. Furthermore, the overexpression of activated HDAC4 exacerbated cardiac dysfunction, augmented remodeling, and increased apoptosis in the infarcted heart. This is the first demonstration that transgenic overexpression of HDAC4 is crucial for modulation of cardiac function and remodeling.

Recombinant human proteoglycan-4 reduces phagocytosis of urate crystals and downstream nuclear factor kappa B and inflammasome activation and production of cytokines and chemokines in human and murine macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Gout is an inflammatory arthritis caused by monosodium urate monohydrate (MSU) crystals' joint deposition. MSU phagocytosis by resident macrophages is a key step in gout pathogenesis. MSU phagocytosis triggers nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) activation and production of cytokines and chemokines. Proteoglycan-4 (PRG4) is a glycoprotein produced by synovial fibroblasts and exerts an anti-inflammatory effect in the joint mediated by its interaction with cell surface receptor CD44. PRG4 also binds and antagonizes TLR2 and TLR4. The objective of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of recombinant human PRG4 (rhPRG4) in suppressing MSU-induced inflammation and mechanical allodynia in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: THP-1 macrophages were incubated with MSU crystals ± rhPRG4 or bovine submaxillary mucin (BSM), and crystal phagocytosis, cytokines and chemokines expression and production were determined. NFκB p65 subunit nuclear translocation, NLRP3 induction, caspase-1 activation and conversion of proIL-1ß to mature IL-1ß were studied. MSU phagocytosis by Prg4+/+ and Prg4-/- peritoneal macrophages was determined in the absence or presence of rhPRG4, BSM, anti-CD44, anti-TLR2, anti-TLR4 and isotype control antibodies. Rhodamine-labeled rhPRG4 was incubated with murine macrophages and receptor colocalization studies were performed. Lewis rats underwent intra-articular injection of MSU crystals followed by intra-articular treatment with PBS or rhPRG4. Weight bearing and SF myeloperoxidase activities were determined. RESULTS: rhPRG4 reduced MSU crystal phagocytosis at 4 h (p < 0.01) and IL-1ß, TNF-α, IL-8 and MCP-1 expression and production at 6 h (p < 0.05). BSM did not alter MSU phagocytosis or IL-1ß production in human and murine macrophages. rhPRG4 treatment reduced NFκB nuclear translocation, NLRP3 expression, caspase-1 activation and generation of mature IL-1ß (p < 0.05). MSU-stimulated IL-1ß production was higher in Prg4-/- macrophages compared to Prg4+/+ macrophages (p < 0.001). rhPRG4, anti-CD44, anti-TLR2 and anti-TLR4 antibody treatments reduced MSU phagocytosis and IL-1ß production in murine macrophages (p < 0.05). rhPRG4 preferentially colocalized with CD44 on Prg4-/- peritoneal macrophages compared to TLR2 or TLR4 (p < 0.01). rhPRG4 normalized weight bearing and reduced SF myeloperoxidase activity compared to PBS in vivo. CONCLUSION: rhPRG4 inhibits MSU crystal phagocytosis and exhibits an anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activity in vitro and in vivo. rhPRG4's anti-inflammatory mechanism may be due to targeting CD44 on macrophages.

cAMP attenuates TGF-ß's profibrotic responses in osteoarthritic synoviocytes: involvement of hyaluronan and PRG4.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by synovitis and synovial fibrosis. Synoviocytes are fibroblast-like resident cells of the synovium that are activated by transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß to proliferate, migrate, and produce extracellular matrix. Synoviocytes secrete hyaluronan (HA) and proteoglycan-4 (PRG4). HA reduces synovial fibrosis in vivo, and the Prg4-/- mouse exhibits synovial hyperplasia. We investigated the antifibrotic effects of increased intracellular cAMP in TGF-ß-stimulated human OA synoviocytes. TGF-ß1 stimulated collagen I (COL1A1), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1, and procollagen-lysine, 2-oxoglutarate 5-dioxygenase 2 (PLOD2) expression, and procollagen I, α-SMA, HA, and PRG4 production, migration, and proliferation of OA synoviocytes were measured. Treatment of OA synoviocytes with forskolin (10 µM) increased intracellular cAMP levels and reduced TGF-ß1-stimulated COL1A1, α-SMA, and TIMP-1 expression, with no change in PLOD2 expression. Forskolin also reduced TGF-ß1-stimulated procollagen I and α-SMA content as well as synoviocyte migration and proliferation. Forskolin (10 µM) increased HA secretion and PRG4 expression and production. A cell-permeant cAMP analog reduced COL1A1 and α-SMA expression and enhanced HA and PRG4 secretion by OA synoviocytes. HA and PRG4 reduced α-SMA expression and content, and PRG4 reduced COL1A1 expression and procollagen I content in OA synoviocytes. Prg4-/- synovium exhibited increased α-SMA, COL1A1, and TIMP-1 expression compared with Prg4+/+ synovium. Prg4-/- synoviocytes demonstrated strong α-SMA and collagen type I staining, whereas these were undetected in Prg4+/+ synoviocytes and were reduced with PRG4 treatment. We conclude that increasing intracellular cAMP levels in synoviocytes mitigates synovial fibrosis through enhanced production of HA and PRG4, possibly representing a novel approach for treatment of OA synovial fibrosis.

Friction-Induced Mitochondrial Dysregulation Contributes to Joint Deterioration in Prg4 Knockout Mice.

Deficiency of PRG4 (lubricin), the boundary lubricant in mammalian joints, contributes to increased joint friction accompanied by superficial and upper intermediate zone chondrocyte caspase-3 activation, as shown in lubricin-null (Prg4-/-) mice. Caspase-3 activity appears to be reversible upon the restitution of Prg4 either endogenously in vivo, in a gene trap mouse, or as an applied lubricant in vitro. In this study we show that intra-articular injection of human PRG4 in vivo in Prg4-/- mice prevented caspase-3 activation in superficial zone chondrocytes and was associated with a modest decrease in whole joint friction measured ex vivo using a joint pendulum method. Non-lubricated Prg4-/- mouse cartilage shows caspase cascade activation caused by mitochondrial dysregulation, and significantly higher levels of peroxynitrite (ONOO- and -OH) and superoxide (O-2) compared to Prg4+/+ and Prg4+/- cartilage. Enzymatic activity levels of caspase 8 across Prg4 mutant mice were not significantly different, indicating no extrinsic apoptosis pathway activation. Western blots showed caspase-3 and 9 activation in Prg4-/- tissue extracts, and the appearance of nitrosylated Cys163 in the active cleft of caspase-3 which inhibits its enzymatic activity. These findings are relevant to patients at risk for arthrosis, from camptodactyl-arthropathy-coxa vara-pericarditis (CACP) syndrome and transient lubricin insufficiency due to trauma and inflammation.

Intra-articular Recombinant Human Proteoglycan 4 Mitigates Cartilage Damage After Destabilization of the Medial Meniscus in the Yucatan Minipig.

BACKGROUND: Lubricin, or proteoglycan 4 (PRG4), is a glycoprotein responsible for joint boundary lubrication. PRG4 has been shown previously to be down-regulated after traumatic joint injury such as a meniscal tear. Preliminary evidence suggests that intra-articular injection of PRG4 after injury will reduce cartilage damage in rat models of surgically induced posttraumatic osteoarthritis. OBJECTIVE: To determine the efficacy of intra-articular injection of full-length recombinant human lubricin (rhPRG4) for reducing cartilage damage after medial meniscal destabilization (DMM) in a preclinical large animal model. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Unilateral DMM was performed in 29 Yucatan minipigs. One week after DMM, animals received 3 weekly intra-articular injections (3 mL per injection): (1) rhPRG4 (1.3 mg/mL; n = 10); (2) rhPRG4+hyaluronan (1.3 mg/mL rhPRG4 and 3 mg/mL hyaluronan [~950 kDA]; n = 10); and (3) phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; n = 9). Hindlimbs were harvested 26 weeks after surgery. Cartilage integrity was evaluated by use of macroscopic (India ink) and microscopic (safranin O-fast green and hematoxylin and eosin) scoring systems. Secondary outcomes evaluated via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) included PRG4 levels in synovial fluid, carboxy-terminal telepeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II) concentrations in urine and serum, and interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) levels in synovial fluid and serum. RESULTS: The rhPRG4 group had significantly less macroscopic cartilage damage in the medial tibial plateau compared with the PBS group ( P = .002). No difference was found between the rhPRG4+hyaluronan and PBS groups ( P = .23). However, no differences in microscopic damage scores were observed between the 3 groups ( P = .70). PRG4 production was elevated in the rhPRG4 group synovial fluid compared with the PBS group ( P = .033). The rhPRG4 group presented significantly lower urinary CTX-II levels, but not serum levels, when compared with the PBS ( P = .013) and rhPRG4+hyaluronan ( P = .011) groups. In serum and synovial fluid, both rhPRG4 ( P = .006; P = .017) and rhPRG4+hyaluronan groups ( P = .009; P = .03) presented decreased IL-1ß levels. CONCLUSION: All groups exhibited significant cartilage degeneration after DMM surgery. However, animals treated with rhPRG4 had the least amount of cartilage damage and less inflammation, providing evidence that intra-articular injections of rhPRG4 may slow the progression of posttraumatic osteoarthritis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Patients with meniscal trauma are at high risk for posttraumatic osteoarthritis. This study demonstrates that an intra-articular injection regimen of rhPRG4 may attenuate cartilage damage after meniscal injury.

Superficial zone cellularity is deficient in mice lacking lubricin: a stereoscopic analysis.

BACKGROUND: Lubricin, a mucinous glycoprotein secreted by synoviocytes and chondrocytes plays an important role in reducing the coefficient of friction in mammalian joints. Elevated cartilage surface friction is thought to cause chondrocyte loss; however, its quantification and methodological approaches have not been reported. We adapted a stereological method and incorporated vital cell staining to assess cellular loss in superficial and upper intermediate zones in lubricin deficient mouse cartilage. METHODS: The femoral condyle cartilage of the intact knees from lubricin wild type (Prg4 (+/+)), heterozygote (Prg4 (+/-)), and knockout (Prg4 (-/-)) mice was imaged using fluorescein diacetate (FDA), propidium iodide (PI), and Hoechst staining, and confocal microscopy. Three dimensional reconstructions of confocal images to a depth of 14 µm were analyzed using Matlab to determine the volume fraction occupied by chondrocytes in cartilage of both medial and lateral femoral condyles. Living chondrocyte volume fraction was defined as FDA stained chondrocyte volume/total volume of superficial + upper intermediate zone. Living and dead (total) chondrocyte volume fraction was defined as FDA + PI stained chondrocyte volume/total volume of superficial + upper intermediate zone. MicroCT provided an orthogonal measure of cartilage thickness. Immunohistology for activated caspase-3 and TUNEL staining were performed to evaluate the presence of apoptotic chondrocytes in Prg4 mutant mice. RESULTS: Living chondrocyte volume fraction of the medial femoral condyle was significantly lower in Prg4 (-/-) mice compared to Prg4 (+/+) (p = 0.002) and Prg4 (+/-) (p = 0.002) littermates. There was no significant difference in medial condyle chondrocyte volume fraction between Prg4 (+/+) and Prg4 (+/-) mice (p = 0.82). No significant differences were observed for the chondrocyte volume fraction for the lateral condyle (p > 0.26). Cartilage thickness increased in the medial condyle for Prg4 (-/-) mice compared to Prg4 (+/+) (p = 0.02) and Prg4 (+/-) (p = 0.03) littermates, and the lateral condyle for Prg4 (-/-) mice compared to Prg4 (+/+) (p < 0.0001) and Prg4 (+/-) (p < 0.0001) littermates, indicating that a multi-dimensional increase in cartilage volume did not artifactually lower the chondrocyte volume fraction in the medial condyle. Significantly higher number of caspase-3 positive cells were observed in the superficial and upper intermediate zone cartilage of the medial femoral condyle of Prg4 (-/-) mice compared to Prg4 (+/+) (p = 0.01) and Prg4 (+/-) (p = 0.04) littermates, and the lateral femoral condyle of Prg4 (-/-) mice compared to Prg4 (+/+) (p = 0.02) and Prg4 (+/-) (p = 0.02) littermates. There were no significant differences in TUNEL staining among different Prg4 genotypes in both condyles (p > 0.05 for all comparisons). CONCLUSIONS: Increased Caspase-3 activation is observed in Prg4 deficient mice compared to Prg4 sufficient littermates. Absence of Prg4 induces loss of chondrocytes in the superficial and upper intermediate zone of mouse cartilage that is quantifiable by a novel image processing technique.

The interaction of lubricin/proteoglycan 4 (PRG4) with toll-like receptors 2 and 4: an anti-inflammatory role of PRG4 in synovial fluid.

BACKGROUND: Lubricin/proteoglycan-4 (PRG4) is a mucinous glycoprotein secreted by synovial fibroblasts and superficial zone chondrocytes. PRG4 has a homeostatic multifaceted role in the joint. PRG4 intra-articular treatment retards progression of cartilage degeneration in pre-clinical posttraumatic osteoarthritis models. The objective of this study is to evaluate the binding of recombinant human PRG4 (rhPRG4) and native human PRG4 (nhPRG4) to toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and TLR4) and whether this interaction underpins a PRG4 anti-inflammatory role in synovial fluid (SF) from patients with osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS: rhPRG4 and nhPRG4 binding to TLR2 and TLR4 was evaluated using a direct enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Association of rhPRG4 with TLR2 and TLR4 overexpressing human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells was studied by flow cytometry. Activation of TLR2 and TLR4 on HEK cells by agonists Pam3CSK4 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was studied in the absence or presence of nhPRG4 at 50, 100 and 150 µg/ml. Activation of TLR2 and TLR4 by OA SF and RA SF and the effect of nhPRG4 SF treatment on receptor activation was assessed. PRG4 was immunoprecipitated from pooled OA and RA SF. TLR2 and TLR4 activation by pooled OA and RA SF with or without PRG4 immunoprecipitation was compared. RESULTS: rhPRG4 and nhPRG4 exhibited concentration-dependent binding to TLR2 and TLR4. rhPRG4 associated with TLR2- and TLR4-HEK cells in a time-dependent manner. Co-incubation of nhPRG4 (50, 100 and 150 µg/ml) and Pam3CSK4 or LPS reduced TLR2 or TLR4 activation compared to Pam3CSK4 or LPS alone (p <0.05). OA SF and RA SF activated TLR2 and TLR4 and nhPRG4 treatment reduced SF-induced receptor activation (p <0.001). PRG4 depletion by immunoprecipitation significantly increased TLR2 activation by OA SF and RA SF (p <0.001). CONCLUSION: PRG4 binds to TLR2 and TLR4 and this binding mediates a novel anti-inflammatory role for PRG4.

Lubricin restoration in a mouse model of congenital deficiency.

OBJECTIVE: Congenital deficiency of the principal boundary lubricant in cartilage (i.e., lubricin, encoded by the gene PRG4) increases joint friction and causes progressive joint failure. This study was undertaken to determine whether restoring lubricin expression in a mouse model would prevent, delay, or reverse the disease process caused by congenital deficiency. METHODS: Using genetically engineered lubricin-deficient mice, we restored gene function before conception or at ages 3 weeks, 2 months, or 6 months after birth. The effect of restoring gene function (i.e., expression of lubricin) on the tibiofemoral patellar joints of mice was evaluated histologically and by ex vivo biomechanical testing. RESULTS: Restoring gene function in mice prior to conception prevented joint disease. In 3-week-old mice, restoring gene function improved, but did not normalize, histologic features of the articular cartilage and whole-joint friction. In addition, cyclic loading of the joints produced fewer activated caspase 3-containing chondrocytes when lubricin expression was restored, as compared to that in littermate mice whose gene function was not restored (nonrestored controls). Restoration of lubricin expression in 2-month-old or 6-month-old mice had no beneficial effect on histopathologic cartilage damage, extent of whole-joint friction, or activation of caspase 3 when compared to nonrestored controls. CONCLUSION: When boundary lubrication is congenitally deficient and cartilage becomes damaged, the window of opportunity for restoring lubrication and slowing disease progression is limited.