The Biosynthesis of Non-Endogenous Apocarotenoids in Transgenic Nicotiana glauca.

Crocins are high-value compounds with industrial and food applications. Saffron is currently the main source of these soluble pigments, but its high market price hinders its use by sectors, such as pharmaceutics. Enzymes involved in the production of these compounds have been identified in saffron, Buddleja, and gardenia. In this study, the enzyme from Buddleja, BdCCD4.1, was constitutively expressed in Nicotiana glauca, a tobacco species with carotenoid-pigmented petals. The transgenic lines produced significant levels of crocins in their leaves and petals. However, the accumulation of crocins was, in general, higher in the leaves than in the petals, reaching almost 302 µg/g DW. The production of crocins was associated with decreased levels of endogenous carotenoids, mainly ß-carotene. The stability of crocins in leaf and petal tissues was evaluated after three years of storage, showing an average reduction of 58.06 ± 2.20% in the petals, and 78.37 ± 5.08% in the leaves. This study illustrates the use of BdCCD4.1 as an effective tool for crocin production in N. glauca and how the tissue has an important impact on the stability of produced high-value metabolites during storage.

Rice callus as a high-throughput platform for synthetic biology and metabolic engineering of carotenoids.

Carotenoids are a large class of important lipid-soluble phytonutrients that are widely used as nutritional supplements due to their health-promoting activities. For example, ß-carotene is the precursor for vitamin A synthesis, and astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant. However, these carotenoids cannot be synthesized de novo by humans. These properties of ß-carotene and astaxanthin make them attractive targets for metabolic engineering in rice (Oryza sativa) endosperm because rice is an important staple food in developing countries, and rice endosperm is devoid of carotenoids. In this chapter, we introduce an assay based on rice embryogenic callus for the rapid functional characterization of genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation. The system is also an ideal platform to characterize cereal endosperm specific promoters. Four diverse cereal endosperm specific promoters were demonstrated to be active in rice callus despite their restricted activity in mature plants. The use of endosperm specific promoters that are expressed in rice callus, but remain silent in regenerated vegetative tissue, directs accumulation of carotenoids in the endosperm without interfering with plant growth. Rice callus is a useful platform for improving gene editing methods and for further optimizing pathway engineering. Thus, the rice callus platform provides a unique opportunity to test strategies for metabolic engineering of synthetic carotenoid pathways, leading to novel carotenoid-biofortified crops.

Metabolic Engineering of Crocin Biosynthesis in Nicotiana Species.

Crocins are high-value soluble pigments that are used as colorants and supplements, their presence in nature is extremely limited and, consequently, the high cost of these metabolites hinders their use by other sectors, such as the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2L (CsCCD2L) is the key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of crocins in Crocus sativus. In this study, CsCCD2L was introduced into Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana glauca for the production of crocins. In addition, a chimeric construct containing the Brevundimonas sp. ß-carotene hydroxylase (BrCrtZ), the Arabidopsis thaliana ORANGE mutant gene (AtOrMut), and CsCCD2L was also introduced into N. tabacum. Quantitative and qualitative studies on carotenoids and apocarotenoids in the transgenic plants expressing CsCCD2L alone showed higher crocin level accumulation in N. glauca transgenic plants, reaching almost 400 µg/g DW in leaves, while in N. tabacum 36 µg/g DW was obtained. In contrast, N. tabacum plants coexpressing CsCCD2L, BrCrtZ, and AtOrMut accumulated, 3.5-fold compared to N. tabacum plants only expressing CsCCD2L. Crocins with three and four sugar molecules were the main molecular species in both host systems. Our results demonstrate that the production of saffron apocarotenoids is feasible in engineered Nicotiana species and establishes a basis for the development of strategies that may ultimately lead to the commercial exploitation of these valuable pigments for multiple applications.

Multilevel interactions between native and ectopic isoprenoid pathways affect global metabolism in rice.

Isoprenoids are natural products derived from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). In plants, these precursors are synthesized via the cytosolic mevalonate (MVA) and plastidial methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways. The regulation of these pathways must therefore be understood in detail to develop effective strategies for isoprenoid metabolic engineering. We hypothesized that the strict regulation of the native MVA pathway could be circumvented by expressing an ectopic plastidial MVA pathway that increases the accumulation of IPP and DMAPP in plastids. We therefore introduced genes encoding the plastid-targeted enzymes HMGS, tHMGR, MK, PMK and MVD and the nuclear-targeted transcription factor WR1 into rice and evaluated the impact of their endosperm-specific expression on (1) endogenous metabolism at the transcriptomic and metabolomic levels, (2) the synthesis of phytohormones, carbohydrates and fatty acids, and (3) the macroscopic phenotype including seed morphology. We found that the ectopic plastidial MVA pathway enhanced the expression of endogenous cytosolic MVA pathway genes while suppressing the native plastidial MEP pathway, increasing the production of certain sterols and tocopherols. Plants carrying the ectopic MVA pathway only survived if WR1 was also expressed to replenish the plastid acetyl-CoA pool. The transgenic plants produced higher levels of fatty acids, abscisic acid, gibberellins and lutein, reflecting crosstalk between phytohormones and secondary metabolism.

Functional Analysis of Genes GlaDFR1 and GlaDFR2 Encoding Dihydroflavonol 4-Reductase (DFR) in Gentiana lutea L. Var. Aurantiaca (M. Laínz) M. Laínz.

Anthocyanins are important pigments for flower color, determining the ornamental and economic values of horticultural plants. As a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of anthocyanidins, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) catalyzes the reduction of dihydroflavonols to generate the precursors for anthocyanidins (i.e., leucoanthocyanidins) and anthocyanins. To investigate the functions of DFRs in plants, we cloned the GlaDFR1 and GlaDFR2 genes from the petals of Gentiana lutea var. aurantiaca and transformed both genes into Nicotiana tabacum by Agrobacterium-mediated leaf disc method. We further investigated the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of T1 generation transgenic tobacco plants selected based on the hygromycin resistance and verified by both PCR and semiquantitative real-time PCR analyses. The phenotypic segregation was observed in the flower color of the transgenic tobacco plants, showing petals darker than those in the wild-type (WT) plants. Results of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that the contents of gentiocyanin derivatives were decreased in the petals of transgenic plants in comparison to those of WT plants. Ours results revealed the molecular functions of GlaDFR1 and GlaDFR2 in the formation of coloration, providing solid theoretical foundation and candidate genes for further genetic improvement in flower color of plants.

The value of TI-RADS combined with superb micro-vascular imagine in distinguishing benign and malignant thyroid nodules: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the value of thyroid imaging report and data system (TI-RADS) combined with superb micro-vascular imagine technique(SMI) in distinguishing benign and malignant thyroid nodules. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Chinese biomedical databases from inception through February 31, 2021. Meta-analysis was conducted using STATA version 14.0 and Meta-Disc version 1.4 softwares. We calculated the summary statistics for sensitivity(Sen), specificity(Spe), and receiver operating characteristic (SROC) curve. Six studies that met all inclusion criteria were included in this meta-analysis. A total of 408 thyroid malignant nodules and 496 thyroid benign nodules were assessed. All thyroid nodules were histologically confirmed after SMI. The pooled Sen and Spe of TI-RADS were 0.80(95%CI = 0.71-0.87) and 0.82(95%CI = 0.75-0.87); The pooled Sen and Spe of TI-RADS combined with SMI were 0.88 (95%CI = 0.80-0.91) and 0.89 (95%CI = 0.85-0.92). The areas under the SROC curve of TI-RADS and TI-RADS combined with SMI were 0.8874(SE = 0.0165) and 0.9415(SE = 0.0102), between which there was significant difference(Z = 2.789; SE = 0.0194; p = 0.0053). Our meta-analysis indicates that TI-RADS combined with SMI may have high diagnostic accuracy, and is more effective than single TI-RADS in distinguishing benign and malignant thyroid nodules.

Diagnostic value of transrectal combined scrotal ultrasonography in acquired obstructive azoospermia / Valor diagnóstico de la ecografía transrectal y escrotal en la azoospermia obstructiva adquirida

Objective: To investigate the transrectal and scrotal ultrasonographic features of acquired obstructive azoospermia and evaluate the role of ultrasonography in the location diagnosis of acquired obstructive azoospermia patients.Methods: Retrospectively analysis of 92 cases of acquired obstructive azoospermia in recent years. All the patients underwent transrectal and scrotal ultrasonography. The ultrasonographic features were observed of testis, epididymis, scrotal segment of vas deferens, seminal vesicle, ejaculatory duct and prostate. Eighty cases with normal semen were taken as control group.Results: Among the 92 cases of acquired obstructive azoospermia, 28 cases were prostate midline cyst, 32 cases were stone or calcification of the ejaculation duct and 21 cases were chronic seminal vesicle inflammation, which were found through transrectal ultrasonography; 27 cases were vas deferens dilation, 30 cases had abnormal mass of epididymis tail, 31 cases were epididymis thickness with reticular change, 8 cases were cystic dilatation of rete testis, which were found through scrotal ultrasonography. Compared with the control group, ultrasound examination increased the detection rate of distal seminal duct lesions and epididymal lesions in acquired obstructive azoospermia patients (p<.01). Comparison of testicular volume between case group and control group did not reveal significant difference (p>.05). The thickness of the head, body and tail of epididymis in case group was significantly bigger than that in control group (p<.01). (AU)

Objetivo: Investigar las características ecográficas transrectales y escrotales de la azoospermia obstructiva adquirida y evaluar el rol de la ecografía en el diagnóstico de localización de los pacientes con azoospermia obstructiva adquirida.Métodos: Análisis retrospectivo de 92 casos de azoospermia obstructiva adquirida en los últimos años. Todos los pacientes fueron sometidos a ecografía transrectal y escrotal, observándose las características ecográficas en los testículos, epidídimo, segmento escrotal de los conductos deferentes, vesícula seminal, conducto eyaculatorio y próstata. Se tomaron ocho casos con semen normal, como grupo control.Resultados: Entre los 92 casos de azoospermia obstructiva adquirida, se detectaron mediante ecografía transrectal 28 casos de quiste prostático de línea media, 32 casos de cálculo o calcificación del conducto eyaculatorio y 21 casos de inflamación crónica de la vesícula seminal; también se detectaron mediante ecografía escrotal 27 casos de dilatación de los conductos deferentes, 30 casos de masa anormal en el tallo del epidídimo, 31 casos de grosor del epidídimo con cambio reticular y ocho casos de dilatación quística de la rete testis. En comparación con el grupo control, el examen ecográfico incrementó la tasa de detección de las lesiones del conducto seminal distal y las lesiones epididímicas en los pacientes con azoospermia obstructiva adquirida (p < 0,01). La comparación entre el volumen testicular entre el grupo de casos y el grupo control, no reveló ninguna diferencia significativa (p > 0,05). El espesor de la cabeza, cuerpo y cola del epidídimo en el grupo de casos fue significativamente mayor que en el grupo control (p < 0,01). (AU)

Diagnostic value of transrectal combined scrotal ultrasonography in acquired obstructive azoospermia.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the transrectal and scrotal ultrasonographic features of acquired obstructive azoospermia and evaluate the role of ultrasonography in the location diagnosis of acquired obstructive azoospermia patients. METHODS: Retrospectively analysis of 92 cases of acquired obstructive azoospermia in recent years. All the patients underwent transrectal and scrotal ultrasonography. The ultrasonographic features were observed of testis, epididymis, scrotal segment of vas deferens, seminal vesicle, ejaculatory duct and prostate. Eighty cases with normal semen were taken as control group. RESULTS: Among the 92 cases of acquired obstructive azoospermia, 28 cases were prostate midline cyst, 32 cases were stone or calcification of the ejaculation duct and 21 cases were chronic seminal vesicle inflammation, which were found through transrectal ultrasonography; 27 cases were vas deferens dilation, 30 cases had abnormal mass of epididymis tail, 31 cases were epididymis thickness with reticular change, 8 cases were cystic dilatation of rete testis, which were found through scrotal ultrasonography. Compared with the control group, ultrasound examination increased the detection rate of distal seminal duct lesions and epididymal lesions in acquired obstructive azoospermia patients (p<.01). Comparison of testicular volume between case group and control group did not reveal significant difference (p>.05). The thickness of the head, body and tail of epididymis in case group was significantly bigger than that in control group (p<.01). CONCLUSION: Transrectal and scrotal ultrasonography can find lesions in different parts of the seminal passage. Acquired obstructive azoospermia patients have increased rate of distal seminal duct lesions, epididymal lesions and epididymis volume. Transrectal and scrotum ultrasonography can provide reliable imaging evidence for the location diagnosis of acquired obstructive azoospermia.

The Coordinated Upregulated Expression of Genes Involved in MEP, Chlorophyll, Carotenoid and Tocopherol Pathways, Mirrored the Corresponding Metabolite Contents in Rice Leaves during De-Etiolation.

Light is an essential regulator of many developmental processes in higher plants. We investigated the effect of 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase 1/2 genes (OsHDR1/2) and isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase 1/2 genes (OsIPPI1/2) on the biosynthesis of chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phytosterols in 14-day-old etiolated rice (Oyza sativa L.) leaves during de-etiolation. However, little is known about the effect of isoprenoid biosynthesis genes on the corresponding metabolites during the de-etiolation of etiolated rice leaves. The results showed that the levels of α-tocopherol were significantly increased in de-etiolated rice leaves. Similar to 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase 3 gene (OsDXS3), both OsDXS1 and OsDXS2 genes encode functional 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) activities. Their expression patterns and the synthesis of chlorophyll, carotenoid, and tocopherol metabolites suggested that OsDXS1 is responsible for the biosynthesis of plastidial isoprenoids in de-etiolated rice leaves. The expression analysis of isoprenoid biosynthesis genes revealed that the coordinated expression of the MEP (2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate) pathway, chlorophyll, carotenoid, and tocopherol pathway genes mirrored the changes in the levels of the corresponding metabolites during de-etiolation. The underpinning mechanistic basis of coordinated light-upregulated gene expression was elucidated during the de-etiolation process, specifically the role of light-responsive cis-regulatory motifs in the promoter region of these genes. In silico promoter analysis showed that the light-responsive cis-regulatory elements presented in all the promoter regions of each light-upregulated gene, providing an important link between observed phenotype during de-etiolation and the molecular machinery controlling expression of these genes.

Genome editing in cereal crops: an overview.

Genome-editing technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for crop improvement with superior precision and speed. This review presents an analysis of the current state of genome editing in the major cereal crops- rice, maize, wheat and barley. Genome editing has been used to achieve important agronomic and quality traits in cereals. These include adaptive traits to mitigate the effects of climate change, tolerance to biotic stresses, higher yields, more optimal plant architecture, improved grain quality and nutritional content, and safer products. Not all traits can be achieved through genome editing, and several technical and regulatory challenges need to be overcome for the technology to realize its full potential. Genome editing, however, has already revolutionized cereal crop improvement and is poised to shape future agricultural practices in conjunction with other breeding innovations.

Contributions of the international plant science community to the fight against human infectious diseases - part 1: epidemic and pandemic diseases.

Infectious diseases, also known as transmissible or communicable diseases, are caused by pathogens or parasites that spread in communities by direct contact with infected individuals or contaminated materials, through droplets and aerosols, or via vectors such as insects. Such diseases cause ˜17% of all human deaths and their management and control places an immense burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Traditional approaches for the prevention and control of infectious diseases include vaccination programmes, hygiene measures and drugs that suppress the pathogen, treat the disease symptoms or attenuate aggressive reactions of the host immune system. The provision of vaccines and biologic drugs such as antibodies is hampered by the high cost and limited scalability of traditional manufacturing platforms based on microbial and animal cells, particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are prevalent and poorly controlled. Molecular farming, which uses plants for protein expression, is a promising strategy to address the drawbacks of current manufacturing platforms. In this review article, we consider the potential of molecular farming to address healthcare demands for the most prevalent and important epidemic and pandemic diseases, focussing on recent outbreaks of high-mortality coronavirus infections and diseases that disproportionately affect the developing world.

Contributions of the international plant science community to the fight against infectious diseases in humans-part 2: Affordable drugs in edible plants for endemic and re-emerging diseases.

The fight against infectious diseases often focuses on epidemics and pandemics, which demand urgent resources and command attention from the health authorities and media. However, the vast majority of deaths caused by infectious diseases occur in endemic zones, particularly in developing countries, placing a disproportionate burden on underfunded health systems and often requiring international interventions. The provision of vaccines and other biologics is hampered not only by the high cost and limited scalability of traditional manufacturing platforms based on microbial and animal cells, but also by challenges caused by distribution and storage, particularly in regions without a complete cold chain. In this review article, we consider the potential of molecular farming to address the challenges of endemic and re-emerging diseases, focusing on edible plants for the development of oral drugs. Key recent developments in this field include successful clinical trials based on orally delivered dried leaves of Artemisia annua against malarial parasite strains resistant to artemisinin combination therapy, the ability to produce clinical-grade protein drugs in leaves to treat infectious diseases and the long-term storage of protein drugs in dried leaves at ambient temperatures. Recent FDA approval of the first orally delivered protein drug encapsulated in plant cells to treat peanut allergy has opened the door for the development of affordable oral drugs that can be manufactured and distributed in remote areas without cold storage infrastructure and that eliminate the need for expensive purification steps and sterile delivery by injection.

Engineered Maize Hybrids with Diverse Carotenoid Profiles and Potential Applications in Animal Feeding.

Multi-gene transformation methods need to be able to introduce multiple transgenes into plants in order to reconstitute a transgenic locus where the introduced genes express in a coordinated manner and do not segregate in subsequent generations. This simultaneous multiple gene transfer enables the study and modulation of the entire metabolic pathways and the elucidation of complex genetic control circuits and regulatory hierarchies. We used combinatorial nuclear transformation to produce multiplex-transgenic maize plants. In proof of principle experiments, we co-expressed five carotenogenic genes in maize endosperm. The resulting combinatorial transgenic maize plant population, equivalent to a "mutant series," allowed us to identify and complement rate-limiting steps in the extended endosperm carotenoid pathway and to recover corn plants with extraordinary levels of ß-carotene and other nutritionally important carotenoids. We then introgressed the induced (transgenic) carotenoid pathway in a transgenic line accumulating high levels of nutritionally important carotenoids into a wild-type yellow-endosperm variety with a high ß:ε ratio. Novel hybrids accumulated zeaxanthin at unprecedented amounts. We introgressed the same pathway into a different yellow corn line with a low ß:ε ratio. The resulting hybrids, in this case, had a very different carotenoid profile. The role of genetic background in determining carotenoid profiles in corn was elucidated, and further rate-limiting steps in the pathway were identified and resolved in hybrids. Astaxanthin accumulation was engineered by overexpression of a ß-carotene ketolase in maize endosperm. In early experiments, limited astaxanthin accumulation in transgenic maize plants was attributed to a bottleneck in the conversion of adonixanthin (4-ketozeaxanthin) to astaxanthin. More recent experiments showed that a synthetic ß-carotene ketolase with a superior ß-carotene/zeaxanthin ketolase activity is critical for the high-yield production of astaxanthin in maize endosperm. Engineered lines were used in animal feeding experiments which demonstrated not only the safety of the engineered lines but also their efficacy in a range of different animal production applications.

Modification of cereal plant architecture by genome editing to improve yields.

KEY MESSAGE: We summarize recent genome editing studies that have focused on the examination (or reexamination) of plant architectural phenotypes in cereals and the modification of these traits for crop improvement. Plant architecture is defined as the three-dimensional organization of the entire plant. Shoot architecture refers to the structure and organization of the aboveground components of a plant, reflecting the developmental patterning of stems, branches, leaves and inflorescences/flowers. Root system architecture is essentially determined by four major shape parameters-growth, branching, surface area and angle. Interest in plant architecture has arisen from the profound impact of many architectural traits on agronomic performance, and the genetic and hormonal regulation of these traits which makes them sensitive to both selective breeding and agronomic practices. This is particularly important in staple crops, and a large body of literature has, therefore, accumulated on the control of architectural phenotypes in cereals, particularly rice due to its twin role as one of the world's most important food crops as well as a model organism in plant biology and biotechnology. These studies have revealed many of the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of tiller/axillary branching, stem height, leaf and flower development, root architecture and the grain characteristics that ultimately help to determine yield. The advent of genome editing has made it possible, for the first time, to introduce precise mutations into cereal crops to optimize their architecture and close in on the concept of the ideotype. In this review, we consider recent genome editing studies that have focused on the examination (or reexamination) of plant architectural phenotypes in cereals and the modification of these traits for crop improvement.

Inactivation of rice starch branching enzyme IIb triggers broad and unexpected changes in metabolism by transcriptional reprogramming.

Starch properties can be modified by mutating genes responsible for the synthesis of amylose and amylopectin in the endosperm. However, little is known about the effects of such targeted modifications on the overall starch biosynthesis pathway and broader metabolism. Here we investigated the effects of mutating the OsSBEIIb gene encoding starch branching enzyme IIb, which is required for amylopectin synthesis in the endosperm. As anticipated, homozygous mutant plants, in which OsSBEIIb was completely inactivated by abolishing the catalytic center and C-terminal regulatory domain, produced opaque seeds with depleted starch reserves. Amylose content in the mutant increased from 19.6 to 27.4% and resistant starch (RS) content increased from 0.2 to 17.2%. Many genes encoding isoforms of AGPase, soluble starch synthase, and other starch branching enzymes were up-regulated, either in their native tissues or in an ectopic manner, whereas genes encoding granule-bound starch synthase, debranching enzymes, pullulanase, and starch phosphorylases were largely down-regulated. There was a general increase in the accumulation of sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and phytosterols in the mutant endosperm, suggesting that intermediates in the starch biosynthesis pathway increased flux through spillover pathways causing a profound impact on the accumulation of multiple primary and secondary metabolites. Our results provide insights into the broader implications of perturbing starch metabolism in rice endosperm and its impact on the whole plant, which will make it easier to predict the effect of metabolic engineering in cereals for nutritional improvement or the production of valuable metabolites.

Recognition motifs rather than phylogenetic origin influence the ability of targeting peptides to import nuclear-encoded recombinant proteins into rice mitochondria.

Mitochondria fulfil essential functions in respiration and metabolism as well as regulating stress responses and apoptosis. Most native mitochondrial proteins are encoded by nuclear genes and are imported into mitochondria via one of several receptors that recognize N-terminal signal peptides. The targeting of recombinant proteins to mitochondria therefore requires the presence of an appropriate N-terminal peptide, but little is known about mitochondrial import in monocotyledonous plants such as rice (Oryza sativa). To gain insight into this phenomenon, we targeted nuclear-encoded enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) to rice mitochondria using six mitochondrial pre-sequences with diverse phylogenetic origins, and investigated their effectiveness by immunoblot analysis as well as confocal and electron microscopy. We found that the ATPA and COX4 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), SU9 (Neurospora crassa), pFA (Arabidopsis thaliana) and OsSCSb (Oryza sativa) peptides successfully directed most of the eGFP to the mitochondria, whereas the MTS2 peptide (Nicotiana plumbaginifolia) showed little or no evidence of targeting ability even though it is a native plant sequence. Our data therefore indicate that the presence of particular recognition motifs may be required for mitochondrial targeting, whereas the phylogenetic origin of the pre-sequences probably does not play a key role in the success of mitochondrial targeting in dedifferentiated rice callus and plants.

The subcellular localization of two isopentenyl diphosphate isomerases in rice suggests a role for the endoplasmic reticulum in isoprenoid biosynthesis.

KEY MESSAGE: Both OsIPPI1 and OsIPPI2 enzymes are found in the endoplasmic reticulum, providing novel important insights into the role of this compartment in the synthesis of MVA pathway isoprenoids. Isoprenoids are synthesized from the precursor's isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphosphate (DMAPP), which are interconverted by the enzyme isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (IPPI). Many plants express multiple isoforms of IPPI, the only enzyme shared by the mevalonate (MVA) and non-mevalonate (MEP) pathways, but little is known about their specific roles. Rice (Oryza sativa) has two IPPI isoforms (OsIPPI1 and OsIPPI2). We, therefore, carried out a comprehensive comparison of IPPI gene expression, protein localization, and isoprenoid biosynthesis in this species. We found that OsIPPI1 mRNA was more abundant than OsIPPI2 mRNA in all tissues, and its expression in de-etiolated leaves mirrored the accumulation of phytosterols, suggesting a key role in the synthesis of MVA pathway isoprenoids. We investigated the subcellular localization of both isoforms by constitutively expressing them as fusions with synthetic green fluorescent protein. Both proteins localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as well as peroxisomes and mitochondria, whereas only OsIPPI2 was detected in plastids, due to an N-terminal transit peptide which is not present in OsIPPI1. Despite the plastidial location of OsIPPI2, the expression of OsIPPI2 mRNA did not mirror the accumulation of chlorophylls or carotenoids, indicating that OsIPPI2 may be a redundant component of the MEP pathway. The detection of both OsIPPI isoforms in the ER indicates that DMAPP can be synthesized de novo in this compartment. Our work shows that the ER plays an as yet unknown role in the synthesis of MVA-derived isoprenoids, with important implications for the metabolic engineering of isoprenoid biosynthesis in higher plants.

The ratio of phytosiderophores nicotianamine to deoxymugenic acid controls metal homeostasis in rice.

MAIN CONCLUSION: The ratio of nicotianamine to deoxymugenic acid controls tissue-specific metal homeostasis in rice and regulates metal delivery to the endosperm. The metal-chelating phytosiderophores nicotianamine (NA) and 2'deoxymugenic acid (DMA) are significant factors for the control of metal homeostasis in graminaceous plants. These compounds are thought to influence metal homeostasis, but their individual roles and the effect of altering the NA:DMA ratio are unknown. We purposely generated rice lines with high and low NA:DMA ratios (HND and LND lines, respectively). The HND lines accumulated more iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and copper (Cu) in the endosperm through the mobilization of Fe, Zn and Mn from the seed husk to the endosperm. In contrast, Fe, Zn and Mn were mobilized to the husk in the LND lines, whereas Cu accumulated in the endosperm. Different groups of metals are, therefore, taken up, transported and sequestered in vegetative tissues in the HND and LND lines to achieve this metal distribution pattern in the seeds. We found that different sets of endogenous metal homeostasis genes were modulated in the HND and LND lines to achieve differences in metal homeostasis. Our findings demonstrate that the NA:DMA ratio is a key factor regulating metal homeostasis in graminaceous plants. These findings can help formulate refined strategies to improve nutrient composition and nutrient use efficiency in crop plants.

Applications of multiplex genome editing in higher plants.

Multiplex genome editing involves the simultaneous targeting of multiple related or unrelated targets. The latter is most straightforward using the CRISPR/Cas9 system because multiple gRNAs can be delivered either as independent expression cassettes with their own promoters or as polycistronic transcripts processed into mature gRNAs by endogenous or introduced nucleases. Multiplex genome editing in plants initially focused on input traits such as herbicide resistance, but has recently expanded to include hormone biosynthesis and perception, metabolic engineering, plant development and molecular farming, with more than 100 simultaneous targeting events reported. Usually the coding region is targeted but recent examples also include promoter modifications to generate mutants with varying levels of gene expression.

Differential accumulation of pelargonidin glycosides in petals at three different developmental stages of the orange-flowered gentian (Gentiana lutea L. var. aurantiaca).

Corolla color in Gentiana lutea L. exhibits a yellow/orange variation. We previously demonstrated that the orange petal color of G. lutea L. var. aurantiaca is predominantly caused by newly synthesized pelargonidin glycosides that confer a reddish hue to the yellow background color, derived from the carotenoids. However, the anthocyanin molecules of these pelargonidin glycosides are not yet fully identified and characterized. Here, we investigated the regulation, content and type of anthocyanins determining the petal coloration of the orange-flowered G. lutea L. var. aurantiaca. Anthocyanins from the petals of G. lutea L. var. aurantiaca were characterized and quantified by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS (High-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry) coupled with a diode array detector in flowers at three different stages of development (S1, S3 and S5). Eleven pelargonidin derivatives were identified in the petals of G. lutea L. var. aurantiaca for the first time, but quantitative and qualitative differences were observed at each developmental stage. The highest levels of these pelargonidin derivatives were reached at the fully open flower stage (S5) where all anthocyanins were detected. In contrast, not all the anthocyanins were detected at the budlet stage (S1) and mature bud stage (S3) and those corresponded to more complex pelargonidin derivatives. The major pelargonidin derivatives found at all the stages were pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin 3,5-O-diglucoside and pelargonidin 3-O-rutinoside. Furthermore, the expression of DFR (dihydroflavonol 4-reductase), ANS (anthocyanidin synthase), 3GT (UDP-glucose:flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase), 5GT (UDP-glucose:flavonoid 5-O-glucosyltransferase) and 5AT (anthocyanin 5-aromatic acyltransferase) genes was analyzed in the petals of three developmental stages, showing that the expression level of DFR, ANS and 3GT parallels the accumulation of the pelargonidin glucosides. Overall, this study enhances the knowledge of the biochemical basis of flower coloration in Gentiana species, and lays a foundation for breeding of flower color and genetic variation studies on Gentiana varieties.