The NEDD8 inhibitor MLN4924 increases the size of the nucleolus and activates p53 through the ribosomal-Mdm2 pathway.

The ubiquitin-like molecule NEDD8 is essential for viability, growth and development, and is a potential target for therapeutic intervention. We found that the small molecule inhibitor of NEDDylation, MLN4924, alters the morphology and increases the surface size of the nucleolus in human and germline cells of Caenorhabditis elegans in the absence of nucleolar fragmentation. SILAC proteomics and monitoring of rRNA production, processing and ribosome profiling shows that MLN4924 changes the composition of the nucleolar proteome but does not inhibit RNA Pol I transcription. Further analysis demonstrates that MLN4924 activates the p53 tumour suppressor through the RPL11/RPL5-Mdm2 pathway, with characteristics of nucleolar stress. The study identifies the nucleolus as a target of inhibitors of NEDDylation and provides a mechanism for p53 activation upon NEDD8 inhibition. It also indicates that targeting the nucleolar proteome without affecting nucleolar transcription initiates the required signalling events for the control of cell cycle regulators.

A step subsequent to preinitiation complex assembly at the ribosomal RNA gene promoter is rate limiting for human RNA polymerase I-dependent transcription.

The assembly, disassembly, and functional properties of transcription preinitiation complexes (PICs) of human RNA polymerase I (Pol I) play a crucial role in the regulation of rRNA gene expression. To study the factors and processes involved, an immobilized-promoter template assay has been developed that allows the isolation from nuclear extracts of functional PICs, which support accurate initiation of transcription. Immunoblotting of template-bound factors showed that these complexes contained the factors required to support initiation of transcription, SL1, upstream binding factor (UBF), and Pol I. We have demonstrated that, throughout a single round of transcription, SL1 and UBF remain promoter bound. Moreover, the promoter-bound SL1 and UBF retain the ability to function in transcription initiation. SL1 has a central role in the stable association of the PIC with the promoter DNA. The polymerase component of the PIC is released from the promoter during transcription yet is efficiently recycled and able to reinitiate from "poised" promoters carrying SL1 and UBF, since the PICs captured on the immobilized templates sustained multiple rounds of transcription. Kinetic analyses of initiation of transcription by Pol I revealed that Pol I-dependent transcription is rate limited in a step subsequent to recruitment and assembly of Pol I PICs. The rate of RNA synthesis is primarily determined by the rates at which the polymerase initiates transcription and escapes the promoter, referred to as promoter clearance. This rate-limiting step in Pol I transcription is likely to be a major target in the regulation of rRNA gene expression.

hRRN3 is essential in the SL1-mediated recruitment of RNA Polymerase I to rRNA gene promoters.

A crucial step in transcription is the recruitment of RNA polymerase to promoters. In the transcription of human rRNA genes by RNA Polymerase I (Pol I), transcription factor SL1 has a role as the essential core promoter binding factor. Little is known about the mechanism by which Pol I is recruited. We provide evidence for an essential role for hRRN3, the human homologue of a yeast Pol I transcription factor, in this process. We find that whereas the bulk of human Pol I complexes (I alpha) are transcriptionally inactive, hRRN3 defines a distinct subpopulation of Pol I complexes (I beta) that supports specific initiation of transcription. Human RRN3 interacts directly with TAF(I)110 and TAF(I)63 of promoter-selectivity factor SL1. Blocking this connection prevents recruitment of Pol I beta to the rDNA promoter. Furthermore, hRRN3 can be found in transcriptionally autonomous Pol I holoenzyme complexes. We conclude that hRRN3 functions to recruit initiation-competent Pol I to rRNA gene promoters. The essential role for hRRN3 in linking Pol I to SL1 suggests a mechanism for growth control of Pol I transcription.

Functional analysis of the human CDC5L complex and identification of its components by mass spectrometry.

Recently, we identified proteins that co-purify with the human spliceosome using mass spectrometry. One of the identified proteins, CDC5L, corresponds to the human homologue of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe CDC5(+) gene product. Here we show that CDC5L is part of a larger multiprotein complex in HeLa nuclear extract that incorporates into the spliceosome in an ATP-dependent step. We also show that this complex is required for the second catalytic step of pre-mRNA splicing. Immunodepletion of the CDC5L complex from HeLa nuclear extract inhibits the formation of pre-mRNA splicing products in vitro but does not prevent spliceosome assembly. The first catalytic step of pre-mRNA splicing is less affected by immunodepleting the complex. The purified CDC5L complex in HeLa nuclear extract restores pre-mRNA splicing activity when added to extracts that have been immunodepleted using anti-CDC5L antibodies. Using mass spectrometry and database searches, the major protein components of the CDC5L complex have been identified. This work reports a first purification and characterization of a functional, human non-snRNA spliceosome subunit containing CDC5L and at least five additional protein factors.

Subnuclear localization of the active variant surface glycoprotein gene expression site in Trypanosoma brucei.

In Trypanosoma brucei, transcription by RNA polymerase II and 5' capping of messenger RNA are uncoupled: a capped spliced leader is trans spliced to every RNA. This decoupling makes it possible to have protein-coding gene transcription driven by RNA polymerase I. Indeed, indirect evidence suggests that the genes for the major surface glycoproteins, variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) in bloodstream-form trypanosomes, are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. In a single trypanosome, only one VSG expression site is maximally transcribed at any one time, and it has been speculated that transcription takes place at a unique site within the nucleus, perhaps in the nucleolus. We tested this by using fluorescence in situ hybridization. With probes that cover about 50 kb of the active 221 expression site, we detected nuclear transcripts of this site in a single fluorescent spot, which did not colocalize with the nucleolus. Analysis of marker gene-tagged active expression site DNA by fluorescent DNA in situ hybridization confirmed the absence of association with the nucleolus. Even an active expression site in which the promoter had been replaced by an rDNA promoter did not colocalize with the nulceolus. As expected, marker genes inserted in the rDNA array predominantly colocalize with the nucleolus, whereas the tubulin gene arrays do not. We conclude that transcription of the active VSG expression site does not take place in the nucleolus.

Cloning of murine RNA polymerase I-specific TAF factors: conserved interactions between the subunits of the species-specific transcription initiation factor TIF-IB/SL1.

Promoter selectivity for all three classes of eukaryotic RNA polymerases is brought about by multimeric protein complexes containing TATA box binding protein (TBP) and specific TBP-associated factors (TAFs). Unlike class II- and III-specific TBP-TAF complexes, the corresponding murine and human class I-specific transcription initiation factor TIF-IB/SL1 exhibits a pronounced selectivity for its homologous promoter. As a first step toward understanding the molecular basis of species-specific promoter recognition, we cloned the cDNAs encoding the three mouse pol I-specific TBP-associated factors (TAFIs) and compared the amino acid sequences of the murine TAFIs with their human counterparts. The four subunits from either species can form stable chimeric complexes that contain stoichiometric amounts of TBP and TAFIs, demonstrating that differences in the primary structure of human and mouse TAFIs do not dramatically alter the network of protein-protein contacts responsible for assembly of the multimeric complex. Thus, primate vs. rodent promoter selectivity mediated by the TBP-TAFI complex is likely to be the result of cumulative subtle differences between individual subunits that lead to species-specific properties of RNA polymerase I transcription.

Reduction of migrainous headaches during the use of acenocoumarol.

Disappearance of migraine during the use of warfarin and of phenprocoumon has been described in sporadic case reports. Treatment with heparin has also been associated with a reduction of migranous headaches. Recently, the Netherlands Pharmacovigilance Foundation LAREB received a case report concerning the diminution of migrainous headaches associated with the use of the vitamin K antagonist, acenocoumarol.

Reconstitution of transcription factor SL1: exclusive binding of TBP by SL1 or TFIID subunits.

RNA polymerase I and II transcription factors SL1 and TFIID, respectively, are composed of the TATA-binding protein (TBP) and a set of TBP-associated factors (TAFs) responsible for promoter recognition. How the universal transcription factor TBP becomes committed to a TFIID or SL1 complex has not been known. Complementary DNAs encoding each of the three TAFIs that are integral components of SL1 have not been isolated. Analysis of subunit interactions indicated that the three TAFIs can bind individually and specifically to TBP. In addition, these TAFIs interact with each other to form a stable TBP-TAF complex. When TBP was bound first by either TAFI110, 63, or 48, subunits of TFIID such as TAFII250 and 150 did not bind TBP. Conversely, if TBP first formed a complex with TAFII250 or 150, the subunits of SL1 did not bind TBP. These results suggest that a mutually exclusive binding specificity for TBP intrinsic to SL1 and TFIID subunits directs the formation of promoter- and RNA polymerase-selective TBP-TAF complexes.

Assembly of transcriptionally active RNA polymerase I initiation factor SL1 from recombinant subunits.

Initiation of ribosomal RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase I requires the promoter selectivity factor SL1, which consists of the TATA-binding protein, TBP, and three associated factors, TAFIS 110, 63, and 48. Here the in vivo and in vitro assembly of functional SL1 complexes from recombinant TAFIS and TBP are reported. Complexes containing TBP and all three TAFIS were as active in supporting transcription from the human ribosomal RNA gene promoter as endogenous SL1, whereas partial complexes without TBP did not efficiently direct transcription in vitro. These results suggest that TAFIS 110, 63, and 48, together with TBP, are necessary and sufficient to reconstitute a transcriptionally active SL1 complex.

Insertion of the promoter for a variant surface glycoprotein gene expression site in an RNA polymerase II transcription unit of procyclic Trypanosoma brucei.

The variant-specific surface glycoprotein (VSG) genes of Trypanosoma brucei are invariably expressed near the ends of chromosomes (telomeres). We have targeted a VSG gene expression site (ES) promoter driving a selectable marker gene (neomycin phosphotransferase) into a chromosome-internal transcription unit, the tubulin gene array of procyclic trypanosomes. To avoid read through transcription of the marker gene from the tubulin promoter, we targeted the ES promoter in inverse orientation relative to tubulin gene transcription. The only correctly targeted transformant obtained contained the marker gene close to the border of the tubulin gene array, and expression of this gene was relatively low. Possible reasons for the low targeting efficiency and expression level are discussed.

A ribosomal RNA gene promoter at the telomere of a mini-chromosome in Trypanosoma brucei.

The parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei has some hundred mini-chromosomes of 50-150 kb, which mainly consist of telomeric repeats, sub-telomeric repeats and internal 177-bp repeats. Their primary function seems to be to expand the repertoire of non-transcribed sub-telomeric variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) genes. Here we report that two of the smaller mini-chromosomes (55 and 60 kb) contain sequences homologous to the ribosomal RNA gene promoter region. We have targeted by homologous recombination the neomycin phosphotransferase (neo(r)) gene behind the promoter on the 55 kb chromosome and show that this promoter mediates the efficient synthesis of properly trans-spliced and polyadenylated neo mRNA. The resulting high resistance to G418 (a neo analogue) is stable in the absence of drug showing that mitotic segregation of this mini-chromosome is precise. Downstream of the transcription start the wild-type version of the ribosomal promoter is flanked by telomeric repeats. The absence of the sub-telomeric repeats found in other T.brucei chromosome ends suggests that the rDNA-telomeric junction has been formed by de novo addition of telomeric repeats to a broken chromosome end (healing). Our results provide a plausible explanation for the alpha-amanitin-resistant transcription of telomeric repeats in T.brucei reported by Rudenko and Van der Ploeg and they show that trypanosomes can efficiently use RNA polymerase I for the expression of sub-telomeric genes, supporting the notion that the alpha-amanitin-resistant transcription of sub-telomeric VSG genes may also be catalyzed by this enzyme.

Alpha-amanitin-resistant transcription units in trypanosomes: a comparison of promoter sequences for a VSG gene expression site and for the ribosomal RNA genes.

Transcription of the predominant surface antigen genes in Trypanosoma brucei is unusual in its resistance to the RNA polymerase inhibitor alpha-amanitin, a property typical for rDNA transcription in eukaryotes. Transcription of most other protein-coding genes in trypanosomes is sensitive to alpha-amanitin. To investigate whether RNA polymerase I, the polymerase that transcribes rRNA genes, can give rise to functional mRNAs in trypanosomes, we have fused the putative promoter of the T.brucei rRNA genes to the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) gene and determined CAT activity after transient expression of chimeric constructs in procyclic trypanosomes. We show here that the rRNA promoter yields the same high CAT activity as the promoters for the two predominant surface antigen genes of trypanosomes, the Variant-specific Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) gene of bloodstream trypanosomes and the procyclin gene of insect-form trypanosomes, both of which are also transcribed by an alpha-amanitin-insensitive RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase I of trypanosomes seems therefore able to synthesize pre-mRNAs that are effectively processed into translatable mRNAs. Dissection of the promoter segments showed the minimal elements for a VSG gene expression site promoter to be confined to a segment of -60 to +77 bp, overlapping the most 5' putative transcription start sites as determined in vivo by RNase protection experiments. For the ribosomal promoter region a segment of -258 to +200 bp relative to the putative transcription start site was sufficient for maximal CAT activity. There is a precise requirement for specific nucleotides at the rRNA transcription start site. We detect no homology between the sequences required for promoter function of the three alpha-amanitin-resistant transcription units, rRNA, VSG and procyclin (parp) genes. This suggests that the sequence-specific recognition of these promoters either occurs by common factors detecting sequence homologies that escape us, or by separate factors that bind to different DNA sequences but interact with a common alpha-amanitin-resistant RNA polymerase.

Efficient production of functional mRNA mediated by RNA polymerase I in Trypanosoma brucei.

The unicellular eukaryote Trypanosoma brucei evades the immune defence of its mammalian host by antigenic variation. The genes for variant-specific surface glycoproteins (VSGs) are expressed within large multicistronic transcription units. Mature messenger RNAs are produced by trans-splicing and polyadenylation. A remarkable feature of the transcription of VSG genes is its insensitivity to the RNA polymerase II inhibitor alpha-amanitin. This has led to the speculation that RNA polymerase I, normally only involved in the transcription of ribosomal RNA genes, also mediates expression of these surface antigen genes. In higher eukaryotes, however, transcripts produced by RNA polymerase I were found to be poor substrates for processing into mature mRNAs. In contrast, we show here that the RNA polymerase I of T. brucei can mediate the efficient production of functional mRNA for neomycin phosphotransferase. This exceptional ability may be related to the unusual way in which pre-mRNAs are capped in trypanosomes. In most eukaryotes, mRNAs are modified at their 5' end by a capping activity associated with RNA polymerase II; in trypanosomes, mRNAs acquire their 5'-cap from capped mini-exon donor RNA by trans-splicing, a process that could be independent of the RNA polymerase producing the pre-mRNA.

Antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei: a telomeric expression site for variant-specific surface glycoprotein genes with novel features.

African trypanosomes evade the immune response of their host by periodically changing their variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat. Each coat is encoded by a separate VSG gene. Expressed genes are in a telomeric expression site (ES) and there are several sites in each trypanosome. To study the transcription control of VSG genes in Trypanosoma brucei we have analyzed an ES, called the dominant ES (DES), that readily switches off and on. The promoter area of the DES is very similar to that of the 221 ES (Zomerdijk et al., 1990). It can be switched off and on in vivo without detectable DNA alterations in the vicinity of the transcription start and it can drive high transient expression of a reporter gene in transfection experiments. However, there are also two major differences between the DES and the 221 ES. First, one version of the DES contains an additional upstream transcription unit overlapping the VSG gene ES promoter. The presence of this upstram transcription is dispensable, however, for the VSG gene ES promoter is active, even if transcription through this start from the upstream promoter is blocked using UV light. Moreover, a second version of the DES present in another trypanosome variant does not produce these upstream transcripts. Secondly, we find that the inactivation of DES transcription in one trypanosome variant is accompanied by DNA alterations in the DES upstream (greater than 2 kb) of the transcription start; reactivation of DES transcription is accompanied by another alteration far upstream. Although we cannot exclude that these DNA rearrangements are incidental, our results raise the possibility that the activity of ES promoters is negatively controlled in cis by far upstream sequences not included in transfection constructs and that alterations in these sequences may lead to (in)activation of the promoter.

The promoter for a variant surface glycoprotein gene expression site in Trypanosoma brucei.

The variant-specific surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene 221 of Trypanosoma brucei is transcribed as part of a 60 kb expression site (ES). We have identified the promoter controlling this multigene transcription unit by the use of 221 chromosome-enriched DNA libraries and VSG gene 221 expression site specific transcripts. The start of transcription was determined by hybridization and RNase protection analysis of nascent RNA. The 5' ends of the major transcripts coming from the initiation region map at nucleotide sequences that do not strongly resemble rRNA transcriptional starts even though the transcripts are synthesized by an RNA polymerase highly resistant to alpha-amanitin. The cloned VSG gene 221 ES transcription initiation region promotes high CAT gene expression, when reintroduced by electroporation into T. brucei. We show that the activity of this expression site is controlled at or near transcription initiation in bloodstream trypanosomes. The 221 ES is inactivated without any sequence alteration within 1.4 kb of the transcription start site. This excludes mechanisms of promoter inactivation involving DNA rearrangements in the vicinity of the transcription start site, e.g. promoter inversion or conversion.

In vivo labelling of intermediates in the discontinuous synthesis of mRNAs in Trypanosoma brucei.

Discontinuous mRNA synthesis in trypanosomes is thought to involve a 140-nucleotide precursor, called the mini-exon-derived RNA or medRNA, which contributes its 5' 35 nucleotides to the 5' end of nascent mRNAs. We used in vivo labelling of RNA to show that medRNA has a half-life of less than 6 min, whereas putative high mol. wt intermediates containing the 3' part of the medRNA have an average half-life of less than 1 min. This eliminates priming of pre-mRNA synthesis by intact medRNA as the main mode of discontinuous mRNA synthesis. Potential intermediates of 35 and 105 nucleotides were labelled in parallel with medRNA, but their significance could not be assessed in RNA preparations containing medRNA, as they are also produced by artefactual cleavage of medRNA. We show, however, that high mol. wt RNA, free of medRNA, can release medRNA segments upon a debranching treatment. These results are consistent with a trans splicing mechanism involving short-lived forked intermediates, analogous to lariats in cis splicing systems.