[Standard metabolism and macrotaxonomy of crustaceans]. / Standartnyi obmen i makrosistematika rakoobraznykh.

The influence of temperature and other environmental factors on the rate of oxygen consumption has been studied in adult forms of crustaceans. The allometric relationship between respiration and body weight was calculated for 15 crustacean orders on the basis of published data on the standard metabolic rate and body weight in 225 crustacean species. The macrotaxonomy of the studied crustacean orders was proposed on the basis of the obtained values of coefficient a from the allometric relationship.

[Evolutionary bioenergetic trap and progressive evolution of animals]. / Evoliutsionnaia bioénergeticheskaia lovushka i progressivnaia évoliutsiia zhivotnykh.

We propose a macroscopic pathway to increase energy metabolism during progressive evolution with reducing size of animal body. If standard metabolism significantly increases in the course of body size reduction through increased coefficient b from the allometric equation (1), two cases are possible: coefficient b remains constant (1) or returns to the normal value (2) at increasing body weight in a given animal group. In the first case, an animal group appears in an evolutionary trap considering possible increase in body size, since the standard metabolism at increasing weight becomes lower starting from a certain point as compared to other animals of the same type. In the second case, increasing body size elevates standard metabolism relative to other animals of the same type, which offers an evolutionary advantage to this group.

[Heat barriers in progressive evolution of animals and humans]. / Teplovye bar'ery v protsesse évoliutsii zhivotnykh i cheloveka.

The principle of fastest descent in thermodynamics of nonequilbrium processes is a physical foundation of progressive evolution of animals and humans. We present a curve of bioenergetic progress of animals and demonstrate that movement along this curve form a certain moment is only possible if "the first heat barrier" is overcome, which corresponds to the intensity of animal respiration (coefficient a 5-6 mWt/g). Overcoming this barrier is related to the development of thermoregulation and appearance of homoiothermic animals. "The second heat barrier" (coefficient a about 45-50 mWt/g) is related to heating of the animal body up to the damaging temperatures and this barrier is overcome as a result of conscious activity and the appearance of human civilization. The possibility of "the third heat barrier" is discussed as a result of energy production by industry. Overcoming of "the third heat barrier" is possible through assimilation of the space and transfer in the space of energy-producing industry.

Phenomenological theory of ontogenesis.

In accordance to Prigogine-Wiame and phenomenological theories of ontogenesis, a continuous decreasing of specific entropy production measured by the intensity of heat production or respiration takes place during development, growth and aging. There are periods in the life of organisms when reverse processes occur: (initial stages of oogenesis, regeneration and malignant growth). The phenomenological theory of ontogenesis demonstrates that physical bases of individual development are characterized by two thermodynamic principles: minimum energy dissipation and fastest descent.

Aspects of bioenergetics and civilization.

By means of an allometric relation between the oxygen consumption rate and the body mass of an animal a metabolic coefficient is derived that can be used as a measure of standard metabolism in different animal species. This coefficient increased in the course of evolution corresponding to the time of appearance of each class of animal. It reached its highest values in Primates and passerine birds. A further increase across an energetic threshold was only possible with human civilization. A similar approach to evolution is performed through an encephalization coefficient showing that in all phases of evolution, species existed with a much larger relative brain volume than the other members of their class. These species might have established a non-human civilization on Earth if evolution would have taken another path. Finally, social activities of insects and the use of external energy sources by animals are discussed to show further implications of this bioenergetic approach to evolution.

[The mitochondrial theory of carcinogenesis]. / Mitokhondrial'naia teoriia kantserogeneza.

This is a brief review of different ideas on the mechanism of cell malignization united by the mitochondrial conception of carcinogenesis. According to this conception, primary trigger factors of carcinogenesis (free radicals, carcinogens, heat fluctuations) induce damage to mitochondrial DNA and membranes that results in the rearrangement of cell energy metabolism to glycolytic type and disturbance of mitochondrial structure and reproduction. The injured part of mitochondrial DNA incorporating into nuclear DNA induces activation of oncogenes, appearance of oncoproteins and malignization of cells.

[The macrosystematics of mammals according to energy metabolism criteria]. / Makrosistematika mlekopitaiushchikh po kriteriiam énergeticheskogo metabolizma.

Criteria of evolutionary progress and complexity of organization have been proposed on the basis of the data on energetic metabolism. These criteria can serve as a basis of macrosystematics of mammals at the level of orders. The orders with the known data on energetic metabolism have been ranged.

[Energy metabolism and the direction of evolutionary progress in the class of mammals]. / Energeticheskii metabolizm i napravlenie évoliutsionnogo progressa v klasse mlekopitaiushchikh.

The data on dependence of standard metabolism on body weight in 518 mammalian species have been summarized. Standard metabolism differs in representatives of different classes and families. The higher it is, the more complicated is the organization of the animals. Comparison of standard metabolism in different classes of mammals with the time of their paleontological origin demonstrates that evolutionary process in mammals was directed towards the increase in energetic metabolism of animals.

[The lifespan and Rubner constant at different temperatures in Drosophila melanogaster]. / Prodolzhitel'nost' zhizni i konstanta Rubnera pri raznykh temperaturakh u Drosophila melanogaster.

According to the Rubner's hypothesis, the total amount of oxygen consumed during life is constant for animals. This value is designated as the Rubner constant. Experimental data on the energetic exchange and life span in D. melanogaster allowed to conclude that the total oxygen consumption during the imaginal stage and during the whole ontogeny was not constant and changed under the influence of environmental temperature factor.

[A method for determining optimal development conditions by summary oxygen consumption]. / Metod opredeleniia optimal'nykh uslovii razvitiia po summarnomu potrebleniiu kisloroda.

The minimal overall oxygen consumption at a given developmental stage corresponds to the most favorable temperature conditions of development of poikilothermic animals. Theoretical considerations and experimental data are provided which substantiate this method of determination of the optimal developmental conditions and critical comments are analyzed.

[Changes in the surface area and shape of growing organisms]. / Izmenenie ploshchadi poverkhnosti i formy rastushchikh organizmov.

Equations describing the changes in body surface area of rats and humans during ontogenesis are proposed. A function of difference between the body surface and the surface of sphere of similar weight and density was chosen in order to characterize the body plan formation. Equations describing these processes in rats and humans are proposed.

[Respiration and heat production in the embryonic development of chickens]. / Dykhanie i teploproduktsiia v zarodyshevom razvitii kur.

A marked increase in the rate of oxagen consumption and heat production, measured by the direct method, is observed in the chick embryogenesis. The intensity of respiration and heat production of the embryos decreases as the development proceeds. During development the data obtained by direct and indirect calorimetry diverge. This divergence, referred to as psi u-function, gradually decreases by the moment of hatching. Differences in the value of heat production and psi u-function were found in crosses of meat and egg directions, related to differences in the growth rate and productivity of adult fowl.

Experimental investigation of the bound dissipation function: change of the psi u-function during the growth of yeast.

By means of a microcalorimeter (direct calorimetry) and a Warburg-apparatus (indirect calorimetry) that part of the dissipation of a growing culture of yeast cells which remains irreversible in the cells is determined (psi u). The course of the psi u-function with time correlates with the increase of the specific cell concentration being conditioned by the growth phase of the culture but similar for fermentative and respirative metabolism.

A modified Robertson's equation of animal growth.

A growth equation is presented, differing from Robertson's equation only in its constnats. It is shown that this equation satisfactorily describes the growth of birds and mammals.