Local niches explain coexistence in environmentally-distinct contact zones between Western Mediterranean vipers.

Species' ecological niches are frequently analysed to gain insights into how anthropogenic changes affect biodiversity. Coping with these changes often involves shifts in niche expression, which can disrupt local biotic interactions. Secondary contact zones, where competition and ecological segregation commonly occur, are ideal for studying the ecological factors influencing species' niches. In this study, we investigated the effect of climate and landscape factors on the ecological niches of two viper species, Vipera aspis and Vipera latastei, across three contact zones in northern Iberia, characterized by varying levels of landscape alteration. Using niche overlap tests, ecological niche models and spatial analyses we observed local variation in the expression of the species' niches across the three contact zones, resulting from the different abiotic and biotic conditions of each area. Rather than spatial niche segregation, we observed high niche overlap, suggesting niche convergence. A pattern of asymmetrical niche variation was identified in all contact zones, driven by species' climatic tolerances and the environmental conditions of each area. V. aspis generally exhibited a wider niche, except in the southernmost zone where the pure Mediterranean climate favored V. latastei. Human-induced landscape changes intensified niche asymmetry, by favoring the most generalist V. aspis over the specialist V. latastei, increasing habitat overlap, and likely competition. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of niche expression at range margins, anticipating a heightened impact of landscape changes in V. latastei. The methodological framework implemented here, and our findings, hold significant relevance for biodiversity management and conservation in human-impacted areas.

One Size Fits All-Venomics of the Iberian Adder (Vipera seoanei, Lataste 1878) Reveals Low Levels of Venom Variation across Its Distributional Range.

European vipers (genus Vipera) are medically important snakes displaying considerable venom variation, occurring at different levels in this group. The presence of intraspecific venom variation, however, remains understudied in several Vipera species. Vipera seoanei is a venomous snake endemic to the northern Iberian Peninsula and south-western France, presenting notable phenotypic variation and inhabiting several diverse habitats across its range. We analysed the venoms of 49 adult specimens of V. seoanei from 20 localities across the species' Iberian distribution. We used a pool of all individual venoms to generate a V. seoanei venom reference proteome, produced SDS-PAGE profiles of all venom samples, and visualised patterns of variation using NMDS. By applying linear regression, we then assessed presence and nature of venom variation between localities, and investigated the effect of 14 predictors (biological, eco-geographic, genetic) on its occurrence. The venom comprised at least 12 different toxin families, of which five (i.e., PLA2, svSP, DI, snaclec, svMP) accounted for about 75% of the whole proteome. The comparative analyses of the SDS-PAGE venom profiles showed them to be remarkably similar across the sampled localities, suggesting low geographic variability. The regression analyses suggested significant effects of biological and habitat predictors on the little variation we detected across the analysed V. seoanei venoms. Other factors were also significantly associated with the presence/absence of individual bands in the SDS-PAGE profiles. The low levels of venom variability we detected within V. seoanei might be the result of a recent population expansion, or of processes other than directional positive selection.