7Li-NMR and FTIR studies of lithium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium complexes with ionophore lasalocid in solution.

Lasalocid metal salts were combined with 1 : 1 lithium and 2:2 potassium, rubidium, and cesium to form complexes. The nature of the lasolocid salt complexes was studied in a solid and chloroform by FTIR spectroscopy in the middle and far IR regions. The process of the complexation of lithium was also studied by (7)Li-NMR. In chloroform a 1 : 1 complex of lasalocid and Li(+) ions was formed. Continuous absorption was observed in the far FTIR spectrum of this complex. It indicated large Li(+) polarizability, which was due to fast fluctuations of the Li(+) ions in the multiminima potentials, in the monomeric structure. In the lasalocid salt with the other monovalent cations (K(+), Rb(+), Cs(+)) 2:2 complexes were formed in which the cations showed cation polarizability, which strongly depended on the mass and the radius of the cations.

Proton relay system in the active site of maltodextrinphosphorylase via hydrogen bonds with large proton polarizability: an FT-IR difference spectroscopy study.

Maltodextrinphosphorylase (MDP) was studied in the pH range 5.4-8.4 by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The pK(a) value of the cofactor pyridoxalphosphate (PLP) was found between 6.5 and 7.0, which closely resembles the second pK(a) of free PLP.FT-IR difference spectra of the binary complex of MDP + alpha-D-glucose-1-methylenephosphonate (Glc-1-MeP) minus native MDP were taken at pH 6.9. Following binary complex formation, two Lys residues, tentatively assigned to the active site residues Lys533 and Lys539, became deprotonated, and PLP as well as a carboxyl group, most likely of Glu637, protonated. A system of hydrogen bonds which shows large proton polarizability due to collective proton tunneling was observed connecting Lys533, PLP, and Glc-1-MeP. A comparison with model systems shows, furthermore, that this hydrogen bonded chain is highly sensitive to local electrical fields and specific interactions, respectively. In the binary complex the proton limiting structure with by far the highest probability is the one in which Glc-1-MeP is singly protonated. In a second hydrogen bonded chain the proton of Lys539 is shifted to Glu637. In the binary complex the proton remains located at Glu637. In the ternary complex composed of phosphorylase, glucose-1-phosphate (Glc-1-P), and the nonreducing end of a polysaccharide chain (primer), a second proton may be shifted to the phosphate group of Glc-1-P. In the doubly protonated phosphate group the loss of mesomeric stabilization of the phosphate ester makes the C1-O1 bond of Glc-1-P susceptible to bond cleavage. The arising glucosyl carbonium ion will be a substrate for nucleophilic attack by the nonreducing terminal glucose residue of the polysaccharide chain.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic studies of proton transfer processes and the dissociation of Zn2+-bound water in alcohol dehydrogenases.

The following complexes were investigated by Fourier transform difference spectroscopy: binary complexes of alcohol dehydrogenases from yeast (YADH) and horse liver (LADH) with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and adenosine (5')-diphospho(5)-beta-D-ribose (ADP-Rib); the binary complex of Zn2+-free YADH with NAD+, the ternary complex of LADH with NAD+ and 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol. After addition of NAD+ to YADH and LADH, protonation of the N1 atom of the adenine ring of NAD+ is observed. It is shown that this proton arises from the dissociation of the Zn2+-bound water. The interaction of the Zn2+ ion with water is very strong, since this interaction is not just an electrostatic interaction. If the Zn2+ ions are in a tetrahedral environment, a large covalent contribution also occurs. If ADP-Rib is present instead of NAD+, no protonation of the N1 atom of the adenine ring of ADP-Rib is found, which demonstrates that the positively charged nicotinamide ring favors the conduction of the positive charge. All these results confirm the mechanism of Brändén et al. (1975): the Zn2+-bound water is split and the arising (OH)- deprotonates the alcohol. In the case of the ternary complex of LADH with NAD+ and 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol, we demonstrate that the alcohol is deprotonated and the alcoholate ion is bound directly to the Zn2+ ion. The conduction of the proton from the active site to the N1 atom of adenine occurs via a hydrogen-bonded chain with large proton polarizability due to collective proton motion. The nature and mechanism of this pathway are discussed on the basis of data from previous studies.

Model molecules for the active centre of alcoholdehydrogenases--an FT-IR study.

We synthesized a triamide of Kemp's acid with two cysteine groups and one histidine group (compound 1), and a triamide of 1,3,5-pentane tricarboxylic acid with tyrosine, histidine, and arginine molecules (compound 2). From compound 1 we obtained the hydrated Zn2+ complex, compound 3. The FT-IR spectra of various complexes of compounds 1-3 with NAD+ show no IR continua and hence, no hydrogen-bonded chains with proton polarizability are present. In the case of the complex (compounds 2 and 3 and NAD+) an intense continuum demonstrates that a hydrogen-bonded chain is formed with large proton polarizability due to collective proton motion. This proton pathway is discussed. The O atom of the nicotinamide group of NAD+ is a strong hydrogen bond acceptor. This result is discussed with regard to the catalytic mechanism.

Aspartic proteinases: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic studies of a model of the active side.

We synthesized and studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy nine monosalts of diamides as models for the active side of aspartic proteinases. One compound, the monosalt of meta-aminobenzoic acid diamide of fumaric acid (m-FUM), shows the same biological activity as pepsin with regard to the splitting of peptide bonds of the Pro-Thi-Glu-Phe-Phe(4-NO2)-Arg-Leu heptapeptide. The monosalt of m-FUM forms with oxindole a complex in which the carboxylic acid group of the monosalt of m-FUM is strongly hydrogen bonded with the O atom of the peptide bond of oxindole. When one water molecule is added to this complex, the strong field of the carboxylate group destabilizes an O-H bond of the water molecule. The distorted water molecule attacks the carbon atom of the peptide group, and the water proton transfers to the peptide N atom. Simultaneously, the C-N bond of the amide group is broken. Hence it is demonstrated that the catalytic mechanism of aspartic acid proteinases is a base catalysis. The results show that for this catalytic mechanism there are sufficient carboxylic and carboxylate groups, as well as a water molecule in the correct arrangement. It was also demonstrated with other monosalts of dicarboxylic acids that well-defined steric conditions of the carboxylic acid and the carboxylate group must be fulfilled to show hydrolytic activity with regard to oxindole molecules.

A model molecule of the hydrogen-bonded chain in the active site of bacteriorhodopsin.

We synthesized a 2-N-methylaminoethyl-tetramethylquanidine amide of Kemp's triacid (CP2). Furthermore, we added to CP2 tetrabutylammonium 4-tert-butylphenolate. The pKa value of 4-tert-butylphenol is comparable to that of tyrosine. We studied by FT-IR spectroscopy CP2 and the complex of CP2 with 4-tert-butylphenolate. This complex is a model for the hydrogen-bonded chain in the active centre of the bacteriorhodopsin molecule. An intense continuum in the FT-IR spectra demonstrates that this hydrogen-bonded chain shows large proton polarizability due to collective proton motion. As earlier demonstrated also Schiff base carboxylic acid bonds show large proton polarizability. Thus, in all these hydrogen bonds protons can easily be shifted by collective proton motion due to changes of the local electrical fields and by changes of specific interactions arising from conformational changes.

The F0 complex of the ATP synthase of Escherichia coli contains a proton pathway with large proton polarizability caused by collective proton fluctuation.

The F0 complex of the Escherichia coli ATP synthase embedded into cardiolipin liposomes was studied by FT-IR spectroscopy. For comparison, respective studies were performed with dried F0 liposomes and with F0 liposomes treated with N,N'-dicyclohexyl-carbodiimide (DCCD), which binds to Asp-61 of subunit c. Furthermore, the effect of H2O-->D2O exchange on the infrared spectrum was investigated. With F0 liposomes an infrared continuum is observed beginning at about 3000 cm-1 and extending toward smaller wavenumbers. In the DCCD-treated sample, this continuum is no longer observed. It vanishes also with drying of the liposomes. After H2O-->D2O exchange, this infrared continuum begins at about 2350 cm-1 and is less intense. All of these results demonstrate that a proton pathway in native F0 is present, in which the protons are shifted in a hydrogen-bonded chain with large proton polarizability due to collective proton tunneling. With the D2O-hydrated system, deuteron polarizability due to collective deuteron motion is observed, but the polarizability due to collective deuteron motion is smaller. Such pathways are very efficient, because they conduct protons or deuterons within picoseconds. These pathways lose their polarizability if the F0 complex is blocked by DCCD or if the liposomes are dried. On the basis of our results on the proton polarizability of hydrogen bonds and hydrogen-bonded systems and on the basis of structural data from the literature, the nature of the proton pathway of the F0 complex of E. coli is discussed.

Aspartic proteinases--Fourier transform IR studies of the aspartic carboxylic groups in the active site of pepsin.

Fourier transform (FTIR) difference spectra of pepsin minus diazoacetylnorleucine methyl ester (DAN) or minus diazoacetyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester (DAP) modified pepsin, respectively, demonstrated that Asp-215 is not deprotonated in pepsin. The FTIR difference spectrum of pepsin minus 1,2-epoxyparanitrophenoxypropane (EPNP) modified pepsin demonstrates that Asp-32 is present in pepsin as CO2- anion. The position of the v(C = O) vibration demonstrates that no (O...H...O)- hydrogen bond between Asp-215 and Asp-32 is formed. Furthermore, no H3O+ is present in the active center. Studies of the complex of pepsin with the inhibitor pepstatin prove that the inhibitor removes the water from the active site and Asp-32 becomes protonated.

Formation of disulphide bonds in the reaction of SH group-containing amino acids with trimethylamine N-oxide. A regulatory mechanism in proteins.

Two amino acids containing SH group (cysteine and homocysteine)+trimethylamine N-oxide systems were studied by FTIR and 1H NMR spectroscopy. This study demonstrates that cysteine and homocysteine ethylesters react with trimethylamine N-oxide. Immediately after mixing, SH...ON<==>S-...H+ ON hydrogen bonds with large proton polarizability are are formed. Then a reaction proceeds resulting in the formation of corresponding disulphides. Trimethylamine N-oxide is present in biological systems. Thus, our results suggest that trimethylamine N-oxide may play a regulatory role in S-S bond formation in enzymes and other proteins.

Specific interactions of the allosteric effector 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate with human hemoglobin--a difference FTIR study.

The specific interactions of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) with human deoxy-hemoglobin (deoxy-HbA) are studied by difference FTIR spectroscopy. Due to these interaction effects the O2 affinity of the hemoglobins is regulated. In deoxy-HbA a NH+ ... -OOC hydrogen bond is formed between beta 82 Lys and the carboxylate group of BPG. The phosphate groups of BPG are completely deprotonated causing a strong electrostatic stress within the Hb molecule. The aminotermini (beta 1 Val) interact with the phosphate groups but no hydrogen bonds are formed. The interaction is limited to an electrostatic interaction between the NH3+ and the negatively charged phosphate group, i.e. only ionic bonds are built up. The histidines beta 2 and beta 143 of the two beta-chains form hydrogen bonds with the phosphates. To each phosphate two bonds are formed. These bonds polarize each other and hence only the polar structures NH+ ... -OP of the hydrogen bonds are realized. This follows since no protons are present at the BPG molecules. Thus, caused by the hydrogen bonds and the electrostatic interaction the conformation of HbA is changed by BPG in the way that the T-structure is favored and hence the affinity for oxygen is decreased.

An intramolecular hydrogen bond with large proton polarizability within the head group of phosphatidylserine. An infrared investigation.

Films of O-phospho-L-serine-P-ethylester (PSE) were studied by infrared spectroscopy. PSE films were studied pure and as 1:1 mixture with LiOH, NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2 as a function of the degree of hydration. The same investigations were performed if (L-glu)n was added to the system (ratio 1:1, PSE/glu residue). In the PSE molecules an intramolecular (I) COOH...-OP in equilibrium with COO-...HOP (II) hydrogen bond is present. In this bond a double minimum proton potential occurs and it shows large proton polarizability. This hydrogen bond is relatively stable as shown by the neutralization experiments. At low degree of hydration the cations are present at the phosphate groups. The Li ions polarize the intramolecular hydrogen bonds much more than the other cations, i.e., the weight of the proton-limiting structure COOH...-OP is increased by Li ions. Regarding these results one has to assume that such a hydrogen bond is also present in the phosphatidylserine head groups. It is discussed that such hydrogen bonds could be part of a lateral charge-conducting system in the polar surfaces of biological membranes. Such systems could connect proton-creating and proton-consuming centers at the membrane surface and conduct positive charge at an extremely high rate.

Glutamic acid-dihydrogen phosphate hydrogen-bonded networks: their proton polarizability as a function of cations present. Infrared investigations.

Glutamic acid [(L-glu)n] + dihydrogen phosphate systems are studied by infrared (IR) spectroscopy dried and hydrated at 75% relative humidity, as a function of both the phosphate-glutamic acid residue (Pi/glu) ratio and the type of cations present. It is shown that the glutamic acid groups form hydrogen-bonded chains with the phosphates. In these chains the positive charge fluctuates, and they show very large proton polarizability which increases in the series Li+,Na+,K+ systems. These chains are cross-linked via phosphate-phosphate hydrogen bonds, in which the proton is almost localized at one Pi. The comparison of the (L-glu)n + dihydrogen phosphate systems with the results obtained earlier in the case of (L-glu)n + hydrogen phosphate systems shows that the behavior of (L-glu)n + Pi systems strongly depends on the pH. Only with decreasing pH the conducting chains are formed. Finally, a hypothesis is discussed with regard to the charge conduction in the F0 subunit of the H+-ATPase in mitochondria.

Thermodynamics of proton transfer in carboxylic acid-retinal Schiff base hydrogen bonds with large proton polarizability.

During the photocycle of bacteriorhodopsin (BR) the chromophore, a retinal Schiff base, is deprotonated. Simultaneously an asp residue is protonated. These results suggest that this deprotonation occurs via a Schiff base - asp hydrogen bond. Therefore, we studied carboxylic acid - retinal Schiff base model systems in CCl4 using IR spectroscopy. The IR spectra show that double minimum proton potentials are present in the OH ... N in equilibrium with O- ... HN+ H-bonds formed and that the proton can easily be shifted in these bonds by local electrical fields. The thermodynamic data of H-bond formation and proton transfer within these H-bonds are determined. On the basis of these data a hypothesis is developed with regard to the molecular mechanism of the deprotonation of the Schiff base of BR.

The H2(18O) enrichment of the leaf water of tropic trees: comparison of species from the tropical rain forest and the semi-arid region in Brazil.

The H2(18O) enrichment, delta, in the water of leaves from four Brazilian trees, was studied. In all trees the leaf water showed a periodic variation in delta, with a maximum in the early afternoon and a minimum around 6 a.m. In general delta was found to be either higher or lower than the stationary enrichment which is supposed to depend only on the relative atmospheric humidity. This effect is due to the slow response of the system to variations of the humidity. For a special case, where steady-state conditions could be anticipated, the kinetic enrichment was obtained to 20 +/- 3%, which agrees with theoretical predictions.