Invited article: Characterization of background sources in space-based time-of-flight mass spectrometers.

For instruments that use time-of-flight techniques to measure space plasma, there are common sources of background signals that evidence themselves in the data. The background from these sources may increase the complexity of data analysis and reduce the signal-to-noise response of the instrument, thereby diminishing the science value or usefulness of the data. This paper reviews several sources of background commonly found in time-of-flight mass spectrometers and illustrates their effect in actual data using examples from ACE-SWICS and MESSENGER-FIPS. Sources include penetrating particles and radiation, UV photons, energy straggling and angular scattering, electron stimulated desorption of ions, ion-induced electron emission, accidental coincidence events, and noise signatures from instrument electronics. Data signatures of these sources are shown, as well as mitigation strategies and design considerations for future instruments.

A time digitizer for space instrumentation using a field programmable gate array.

Space instruments such as time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometers and altimeters rely on time-to-digital converters (TDCs) to measure accurately times in the picosecond to microsecond range. Time-to-digital conversion is often implemented with analog circuitry or more recently with custom ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) devices. The analog approach may be costly in terms of circuit board area and parts count, while ASIC development is risky and costly when system requirements may change. Here, we present a highly flexible, accurate, and low-cost field-programmable gate array (FPGA) implementation of such TDC functionality. Compared with other technologies, this method reduces the parts count in TOF-supporting circuits and provides design flexibility in TOF instrumentation, especially for use in space or for applications with a number of sensors too small to warrant the development of a dedicated ASIC. Our technique can accommodate one or more STOP pulse measurements for each START pulse as signal reference, effectively providing measurements of multiple times-of-flight with the same start trigger. Alternatively, all pulse event edges can receive an absolute time stamp, enabling a broad set of new sensor applications. This novel design is based on the construction of a delay-line internal to the FPGA. Propagation variations due to temperature and supply voltage, which typically limit FPGA-based timing designs, are automatically compensated, allowing active signal processing 100% of the time. A methodology for the characterization of internal delay-line timing and nonlinearity has also been developed and is not specific to a particular FPGA architecture. We describe the design of this FPGA-based TDC and also describe detailed tests with a Xilinx XC2V1000. For single non-repetitive events, this design achieves 60 ps accuracy (standard deviation of error); a simplified implementation is suitable for non-reprogrammable FPGAs.

Phase-synchronization, energy cascade, and intermittency in solar-wind turbulence.

The energy cascade in solar wind magnetic turbulence is investigated using MESSENGER data in the inner heliosphere. The decomposition of magnetic field time series in intrinsic functions, each characterized by a typical time scale, reveals phase reorganization. This allows for the identification of structures of all sizes generated by the nonlinear turbulent cascade, covering both the inertial and the dispersive ranges of the turbulent magnetic power spectrum. We find that the correlation (or anticorrelation) of phases occurs between pairs of neighboring time scales, whenever localized peaks of magnetic energy are present at both scales, consistent with the local character of the energy transfer process.

Higher order parametric excitation modes for spaceborne quadrupole mass spectrometers.

This paper describes a technique to significantly improve upon the mass peak shape and mass resolution of spaceborne quadrupole mass spectrometers (QMSs) through higher order auxiliary excitation of the quadrupole field. Using a novel multiresonant tank circuit, additional frequency components can be used to drive modulating voltages on the quadrupole rods in a practical manner, suitable for both improved commercial applications and spaceflight instruments. Auxiliary excitation at frequencies near twice that of the fundamental quadrupole RF frequency provides the advantages of previously studied parametric excitation techniques, but with the added benefit of increased sensed excitation amplitude dynamic range and the ability to operate voltage scan lines through the center of upper stability islands. Using a field programmable gate array, the amplitudes and frequencies of all QMS signals are digitally generated and managed, providing a robust and stable voltage control system. These techniques are experimentally verified through an interface with a commercial Pfeiffer QMG422 quadrupole rod system. When operating through the center of a stability island formed from higher order auxiliary excitation, approximately 50% and 400% improvements in 1% mass resolution and peak stability were measured, respectively, when compared with traditional QMS operation. Although tested with a circular rod system, the presented techniques have the potential to improve the performance of both circular and hyperbolic rod geometry QMS sensors.

An optimized three-dimensional linear-electric-field time-of-flight analyzer.

In situ measurements of the dynamics and composition of space plasmas have greatly improved our understanding of the space environment. In particular, mass spectrometers that use a combination of electrostatic analyzers and time-of-flight systems can identify revealing dynamic and compositional characteristics of ions, and thus constrain their sources and the physical processes relevant for their transport. We demonstrate an optimized design of a linear-electric-field time-of-flight technology that can be used to obtain a high signal to noise: ions that follow an energy-isochronous oscillation within the instrument impact an emissive plate and cause secondary electrons to be sent toward the detector, triggering a high-resolution measurement. By focusing these secondary electrons to a central area on a position-sensitive anode, their signals are separated from ions and neutrals that do not experience energy-isochronous motion. Using their impact positions, the high mass resolution measurements are easily distinguished from other signals on the detector, leading to very favorable signal-to-noise ratios. This optimization provides an improvement to existing technologies without increasing the instrument size or complexity, and uses a novel time-of-flight circuit that combines timing and position information from many signals and ions.