Impact of coordinated care on adherence to antihypertensive medicines among adults experiencing polypharmacy in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to antihypertensives is key for blood pressure control. Most people with hypertension have several comorbidities and require multiple medicines, leading to complex care pathways. Strategies for coordinating medicine use can improve adherence, but cumulative benefits of multiple strategies are unknown. METHODS: Using dispensing claims for a 10% sample of eligible Australians, we identified adult users of antihypertensives during July 2018-June 2019 who experienced polypharmacy (≥5 unique medicines). We measured medicine use reflecting coordinated medicine management in 3 months before and including first observed dispensing, including: use of simple regimens for each cardiovascular medicine; prescriber continuity; and coordination of dispensings at the pharmacy. We measured adherence (proportion of days covered) to antihypertensive medicines in the following 12 months, and used logistic regression to assess independent associations and interactions of adherence with these measures of care. RESULTS: We identified 202 708 people, of which two-thirds (66.6%) had simple cardiovascular medicine regimens (one tablet per day for each medicine), two-thirds (63.3%) were prescribed >75% of medicines from the same prescriber, and two-thirds (65.5%) filled >50% of their medicine on the same day. One-third (28.4%) of people experienced all three measures of coordinated care. Although all measures were significantly associated with higher adherence, adherence was greatest among people experiencing all three measures (odds ratio = 1.63; 95% confidence interval: 1.55-1.72). This interaction was driven primarily by effects of prescriber continuity and dispensing coordination. CONCLUSIONS: Coordinating both prescribing and dispensing of medicines can improve adherence to antihypertensives, which supports strategies consolidating both prescribing and supply of patients' medicines.

Geographic variation in sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist use in people with type 2 diabetes in New South Wales, Australia.

AIM: Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) improve glycaemic control and cardio-renal outcomes for people with type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, geographic and socio-economic variation in use is not well understood. METHODS: We identified 367 829 New South Wales residents aged ≥40 years who dispensed metformin in 2020 as a proxy for T2D. We estimated the prevalence of use of other glucose-lowering medicines among people with T2D and the prevalence of SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use among people using concomitant T2D therapy (i.e. metformin + another glucose-lowering medicine). We measured the prevalence by small-level geography, stratified by age group, and characterized by remoteness and socio-economic status. RESULTS: The prevalence of SGLT2i (29.7%) and GLP-1RA (8.3%) use in people with T2D aged 40-64 increased with geographic remoteness and in areas of greater socio-economic disadvantage, similar to other glucose-lowering medicines. The prevalence of SGLT2i (55.4%) and GLP-1RA (15.4%) among people using concomitant T2D therapy varied across geographic areas, with lower SGLT2i use in more disadvantaged areas and localized areas of high GLP-1RA use (2.5 times the median). Compared with people aged 40-64 years, the prevalence of SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use was lower in older age groups, but with similar patterns of variation across geographic areas. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use varied by geography, probably reflecting a combination of system- and prescriber-level factors. Socio-economic variation in GLP-1RA use was overshadowed by localized patterns of prescribing. Continued monitoring of variation can help shape interventions to optimize use among people who would benefit the most.

Enriching Data Science and Health Care Education: Application and Impact of Synthetic Data Sets Through the Health Gym Project.

Large-scale medical data sets are vital for hands-on education in health data science but are often inaccessible due to privacy concerns. Addressing this gap, we developed the Health Gym project, a free and open-source platform designed to generate synthetic health data sets applicable to various areas of data science education, including machine learning, data visualization, and traditional statistical models. Initially, we generated 3 synthetic data sets for sepsis, acute hypotension, and antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. This paper discusses the educational applications of Health Gym's synthetic data sets. We illustrate this through their use in postgraduate health data science courses delivered by the University of New South Wales, Australia, and a Datathon event, involving academics, students, clinicians, and local health district professionals. We also include adaptable worked examples using our synthetic data sets, designed to enrich hands-on tutorial and workshop experiences. Although we highlight the potential of these data sets in advancing data science education and health care artificial intelligence, we also emphasize the need for continued research into the inherent limitations of synthetic data.

ADHD medication discontinuation and persistence across the lifespan: a retrospective observational study using population-based databases.

BACKGROUND: Although often intended for long-term treatment, discontinuation of medication for ADHD is common. However, cross-national estimates of discontinuation are missing due to the absence of standardised measures. The aim of this study was to determine the rate of ADHD treatment discontinuation across the lifespan and to describe similarities and differences across countries to guide clinical practice. METHODS: We did a retrospective, observational study using population-based databases from eight countries and one Special Administrative Region (Australia, Denmark, Hong Kong, Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the UK, and the USA). We used a common analytical protocol approach and extracted prescription data to identify new users of ADHD medication. Eligible individuals were aged 3 years or older who had initiated ADHD medication between 2010 and 2020. We estimated treatment discontinuation and persistence in the 5 years after treatment initiation, stratified by age at initiation (children [age 4-11 years], adolescents [age 12-17 years], young adults [age 18-24 years], and adults [age ≥25 years]) and sex. Ethnicity data were not available. FINDINGS: 1 229 972 individuals (735 503 [60%] males, 494 469 females [40%]; median age 8-21 years) were included in the study. Across countries, treatment discontinuation 1-5 years after initiation was lowest in children, and highest in young adults and adolescents. Within 1 year of initiation, 65% (95% CI 60-70) of children, 47% (43-51) of adolescents, 39% (36-42) of young adults, and 48% (44-52) of adults remained on treatment. The proportion of patients discontinuing was highest between age 18 and 19 years. Treatment persistence for up to 5 years was higher across countries when accounting for reinitiation of medication; at 5 years of follow-up, 50-60% of children and 30-40% of adolescents and adults were covered by treatment in most countries. Patterns were similar across sex. INTERPRETATION: Early medication discontinuation is prevalent in ADHD treatment, particularly among young adults. Although reinitiation of medication is common, treatment persistence in adolescents and young adults is lower than expected based on previous estimates of ADHD symptom persistence in these age groups. This study highlights the scope of medication treatment discontinuation and persistence in ADHD across the lifespan and provides new knowledge about long-term ADHD medication use. FUNDING: European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme.

In-hospital outcomes by insurance type among patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions for acute myocardial infarction in New South Wales public hospitals.

BACKGROUND: International evidence suggests patients receiving cardiac interventions experience differential outcomes by their insurance status. We investigated outcomes of in-hospital care according to insurance status among patients admitted in public hospitals with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). METHODS: We conducted a cohort study within the Australian universal health care system with supplemental private insurance. Using linked hospital and mortality data, we included patients aged 18 + years admitted to New South Wales public hospitals with AMI and undergoing their first PCI from 2017-2020. We measured hospital-acquired complications (HACs), length of stay (LOS) and in-hospital mortality among propensity score-matched private and publicly funded patients. Matching was based on socio-demographic, clinical, admission and hospital-related factors. RESULTS: Of 18,237 inpatients, 30.0% were privately funded. In the propensity-matched cohort (n = 10,630), private patients had lower rates of in-hospital mortality than public patients (odds ratio: 0.59, 95% CI: 0.45-0.77; approximately 11 deaths avoided per 1,000 people undergoing PCI procedures). Mortality differences were mostly driven by STEMI patients and those from major cities. There were no significant differences in rates of HACs or average LOS in private, compared to public, patients. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest patients undergoing PCI in Australian public hospitals with private health insurance experience lower in-hospital mortality compared with their publicly insured counterparts, but in-hospital complications are not related to patient health insurance status. Our findings are likely due to unmeasured confounding of broader patient selection, socioeconomic differences and pathways of care (e.g. access to emergency and ambulatory care; delays in treatment) that should be investigated to improve equity in health outcomes.

Trends in use of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) in Australia in the era of increased evidence of their cardiovascular benefits (2014-2022).

PURPOSE: To investigate trends in SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use in Australia in the era of increased evidence of their cardiovascular benefits. METHODS: We used national dispensing claims for a 10% random sample of Australians to estimate the number of prevalent and new users (no dispensing in the prior year) of SGLT2i or GLP-1RA per month from January 2014 to July 2022. We assessed prescriber specialty and prior use of other antidiabetic and cardiovascular medicines as a proxy for evidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular conditions, respectively. RESULTS: We found a large increase in the number of prevalent users (216-fold for SGLT2i; 11-fold for GLP-1RA); in July 2022 approximately 250,000 Australians were dispensed SGLT2i and 120,000 GLP-1RA. Most new users of SGLT2i or GLP-1RA had evidence of both T2D and cardiovascular conditions, although from 2022 onwards, approximately one in five new users of SGLT2i did not have T2D. The proportion of new users initiating SGLT2i by cardiologists increased after 2021, reaching 10.0% of initiations in July 2022. Among new users with evidence of cardiovascular conditions, empagliflozin was the most commonly prescribed SGLT2i, while dulaglutide or semaglutide was the most common GLP-1RA. CONCLUSION: SGLT2i and GLP-1RA use is increasing in Australia, particularly in populations with higher cardiovascular risk. The increased use of SGLT2i among people without evidence of T2D suggests that best-evidence medicines are adopted in Australia across specialties, aligning with new evidence and expanding indications.

Persistence and Adherence to Cardiovascular Medicines in Australia.

Background The burden of cardiovascular disease is increasing, with many people treated for multiple cardiovascular conditions. We examined persistence and adherence to medicines for cardiovascular disease treatment or prevention in Australia. Methods and Results Using national dispensing claims for a 10% random sample of people, we identified adults (≥18 years) initiating antihypertensives, statins, oral anticoagulants, or antiplatelets in 2018. We measured persistence to therapy using a 60-day permissible gap, and adherence using the proportion of days covered up to 3 years from initiation, and from first to last dispensing. We reported outcomes by age, sex, and cardiovascular multimedicine use. We identified 83 687 people initiating antihypertensives (n=37 941), statins (n=34 582), oral anticoagulants (n=15 435), or antiplatelets (n=7726). Around one-fifth of people discontinued therapy within 90 days, with 50% discontinuing within the first year. Although many people achieved high adherence (proportion of days covered ≥80%) within the first year, these rates were higher when measured from first to last dispensing (40.5% and 53.2% for statins; 55.6% and 80.5% for antiplatelets, respectively). Persistence was low at 3 years (17.5% antiplatelets to 37.3% anticoagulants). Persistence and adherence increased with age, with minor differences by sex. Over one-third of people had cardiovascular multimedicine use (reaching 92% among antiplatelet users): they had higher persistence and adherence than people using medicines from only 1 cardiovascular group. Conclusions Persistence to cardiovascular medicines decreases substantially following initiation, but adherence remains high while people are using therapy. Cardiovascular multimedicine use is common, and people using multiple cardiovascular medicines have higher rates of persistence and adherence.

Assessing the impact of implementing multiple adherence measures to antiretroviral therapy from dispensing data: a short report.

Pharmacy dispensing data are useful for estimating adherence to therapy. Here, we implement multiple adherence measures to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and provide an online tool for visualising results. We conducted a cohort study for 2,042 people dispensed ART in Australia. We assessed adherence using the Proportion of Days Covered (PDC) within 360 days of follow-up as a continuous measure and dichotomised (PDC ≥80%). We defined a covered day as the 1) exposure to ≥3 antiretrovirals at the same time 2) exposure to any antiretroviral 3) lowest number of days covered per antiretroviral 4) average of days covered over all antiretrovirals 5) highest number of days covered per antiretroviral. For each method, we conducted sensitivity analyses. The median PDC ranged between 93.3%-98.3%. Between 67.0%-87.7% of individuals were classified as adherent, with higher values for measure 2 (85.5%-89.7%) and lower values for measure 3 (67.0%-70.9%). Censoring loss to follow-up had a higher impact on adherence estimates than considering a grace period. The variation in adherence estimates can be substantial, especially when dichotomising adherence. Researchers should consider operationalising multiple measures to estimate adherence bounds and identify a range of people at risk of non-adherence for targeted interventions.

Changes in antidepressant use in Australia: A nationwide analysis (2015-2021).

BACKGROUND: Depression and anxiety affect 4-14% of Australians every year; symptoms may have been exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. We examined recent patterns of antidepressant use in Australia in the period 2015-2021, which includes the first year of the pandemic. METHODS: We used national dispensing claims for people aged ⩾10 years to investigate annual trends in prevalent and new antidepressant use (no antidepressants dispensed in the year prior). We conducted stratified analyses by sex, age group and antidepressant class. We report outcomes from 2015 to 2019 and used time series analysis to quantify changes during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020-February 2021). RESULTS: In 2019, the annual prevalence of antidepressant use was 170.4 per 1000 women and 101.8 per 1000 men, an increase of 7.0% and 9.2% from 2015, respectively. New antidepressant use also increased for both sexes (3.0% for women and 4.9% for men) and across most age groups, particularly among adolescents (aged 10-17 years; 46-57%). During the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, we observed higher than expected prevalent use (+2.2%, 95% CI = [0.3%, 4.2%]) among females, corresponding to a predicted excess of 45,217 (95% CI = [5,819, 84,614]) females dispensed antidepressants. The largest increases during the first year of the pandemic occurred among female adolescents for both prevalent (+11.7%, 95% CI = [4.1%, 20.5%]) and new antidepressant use (+15.6%, 95% CI = [8.5%, 23.7%]). CONCLUSION: Antidepressant use continues to increase in Australia overall and especially among young people. We found a differential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in treated depression and anxiety, greater among females than males, and greater among young females than other age groups, suggesting an increased mental health burden in populations already on a trajectory of increased use of antidepressants prior to the pandemic. Reasons for these differences require further investigation.

Levels of adherence to contemporary antiretroviral regimens and the likelihood of viral suppression: a cohort study in a Brazilian metropolis.

Levels of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) can affect the likelihood of viral suppression differentially among ART regimens. In this prospective cohort conducted in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, we included 354 individuals who initiated ART containing tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/lamivudine/efavirenz in fixed-dose combination (TDF/3TC/EFV) or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/lamivudine associated with dolutegravir (TDF/3TC + DTG). Viral suppression (viral load <50 copies/mL) was evaluated within six months of follow-up at different adherence levels and by therapeutic regimen. Adherence was measured by the Proportion of Days Covered (PDC) and classified into low (≤84%), intermediate (85-89%) or high (≥90%). The association between viral suppression, adherence levels, and other explanatory variables was analyzed using chi-square and multivariable logistic regression. Viral suppression was achieved by 76.0% of individuals and was more frequent among those who achieved higher levels of adherence (high adherence: 79.3%, intermediate: 71.4% and low: 45.2%), those on TDF/3TC + DTG, and those who had viral load ≤100,000 copies/mL at the onset of treatment (p < 0.05). Moreover, individuals on TDF/3TC + DTG had an approximately 90% probability of achieving viral suppression at intermediate adherence levels. These results add new insights on the possibility of lower adherence levels for contemporary antiretroviral regimens currently used as first-line therapy worldwide.

Potential drug-drug interactions due to concomitant medicine use among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Australia.

AIMS: We quantified concomitant medicine use and occurrence of potential drug-drug interactions in people living with HIV in Australia who are treated with antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: In this cohort study using dispensing claims of a 10% random sample of Australians, we identified 2230 people dispensed ART between January 2018 and December 2019 (mean age 49.0 years, standard deviation 12.0 years, 88% male). We examined concomitant medicine use by identifying nontopical medicines dispensed within 90-days of any antiretroviral medicine dispensing during a 12-month follow-up period. For every antiretroviral and nonantiretroviral pair, we identified and classified possible drug-drug interactions using the University of Liverpool HIV drug interactions database. RESULTS: A total of 1728 (78%) people were dispensed at least 1 and 633 (28%) 5 or more unique medicines in addition to ART in a 12-month period; systemic anti-infectives and medicines acting on the nervous system were the most common (68% and 56%, respectively). Among comedicated people, 1637 (95%) had at least 1 medicine combination classified as weak interactions, 558 (32%) interactions requiring close monitoring/dose adjustment and 94 (5%) that should not be coadministered. Contraindication or interactions requiring close monitoring/dose adjustment were more common among people receiving protease inhibitors (50-73% across different antiretrovirals), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (35-64%), people using single-tablet combinations containing elvitegravir (30-46%) and those using tenofovir disoproxil (26-30%). CONCLUSION: Concomitant medicine use is widespread among people living with HIV in Australia. Despite a relatively low prevalence of contraindicated medicines, almost a third received medicines that require close monitoring or dose adjustment.

Trends in HIV post-exposure prophylaxis following sexual exposure in Brazil (2011-2019).

We examined trends in the prevalence of post-exposure prophylaxis following sexual exposure (PEPSE) per million population (2011-2019) and the proportion of repeated PEPSE within 365 days of the first PEPSE dispensing (2011-2018) in Brazil. We also compared the prevalence of repeated PEPSE according to patient and health services characteristics in 2018. The prevalence of PEPSE increased 55.5% from 2011 to 2019. Repeated PEPSE increased 11.8%, reaching 8.4% among people with their first dispensing in 2018. The prevalence of repeated PEPSE was higher in cis men or trans women (versus cisgender women); homosexuals (versus heterosexuals); and people aged 25-29 years (versus other age groups). We also observed greater prevalence of repeated PEPSE in HIV services in populous cities or services with elevated caseloads. Our findings highlight the need for strategies to reduce repeated PEPSE and promote other HIV-prevention technologies, particularly among young adults, cisgender men, transgender women, and homosexuals.

RESUMEN: Examinamos las tendencias de la prevalencia de uso de la profilaxis posterior a la exposición sexual (PEPSE) por millón de población (2011­2019) y la proporción de PEPSE repetida dentro de los 365 días de la primera dispensación de PEPSE (2011­2018) en Brasil. También comparamos la prevalencia de PEPSE repetida según las características del paciente y de los servicios de salud en 2018. La prevalencia de PEPSE aumentó un 55,5% de 2011 a 2019. La PEPSE repetida aumentó un 11,8%, alcanzando el 8,4% entre las personas con su primera dispensación en 2018. La prevalencia de PEPSE repetida fue mayor en hombres cis o mujeres trans (versus mujeres cisgénero); homosexuales (versus heterosexuales); y personas de 25 a 29 años (versus otros grupos de edad). También observamos una mayor prevalencia de repetición en los servicios de VIH de las ciudades más pobladas o con un elevado número de clientes. Nuestros hallazgos ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de estrategias para reducir la repetición de la PEPSE y promover otras tecnologías de prevención del VIH entre los adultos jóvenes, especialmente los hombres, las trans y los homosexuales.

Demographic and health profiles of people with severe mental illness in general practice in Australia: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: People with severe mental illness have a higher rate of premature death than the general population, largely due to primary care preventable diseases. There has been little research on the health profile of this population attending Australian general practices. METHODS: In this nationwide cross-sectional study, MedicineInsight data for adult patients regularly attending general practices in 2018 were analysed to estimate the prevalence of schizophrenia or bipolar disorders (SBD) and investigate the health profile of people with SBD compared with other patients. Multilevel models clustered by practice (n = 565) and patient, and practice characteristics were created. RESULTS: The prevalence of recorded SBD was 1.91% (95% CI = 1.88%-1.94%) among the 618 849 patients included. Patients with recorded SBD were more likely than other patients to have records of health risk factors, particularly smoking (aOR = 3.8, 95% CI = 3.6-3.9) and substance use (aOR = 5.9, 95% CI = 5.6-6.3), and higher probabilities of comorbidities including cardiovascular diseases (aOR = 1.3, 95% CI = 1.2-1.4), cancer (aOR = 1.1, 95% CI = 1.0-1.2), diabetes mellitus type 2 (aOR = 2.2, 95% CI = 2.0-2.3), chronic kidney diseases (aOR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.5-2.0), chronic liver diseases (aOR = 3.3, 95% CI = 2.6-4.0) and chronic respiratory diseases (aOR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.7-1.8). CONCLUSIONS: The higher prevalence of health risk factors and comorbidities among patients with recorded SBD underscores the need for proactive health risk monitoring and preventive care to address this health inequity.

Rates of Low-Value Service in Australian Public Hospitals and the Association With Patient Insurance Status.

Importance: Low-value services have limited or no benefit to patients. Rates of low-value service in public hospitals may vary by patient insurance status, given that there may be different financial incentives for treatment of privately insured patients. Objective: To assess the variation in rates of 5 low-value services performed in Australian public hospitals according to patient funding status (ie, private or public). Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cross-sectional study analyzed New South Wales public hospital data from January 2013 to June 2018. Patients included in the sample were over age 18 years and eligible to receive low-value services based on diagnoses and concomitant procedures. Data analysis was conducted from June to December 2020. Main Outcomes and Measures: Hospital-specific rates of low-value knee arthroscopic debridement, vertebroplasty for osteoporotic spinal fractures, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, oophorectomy with hysterectomy, and laparoscopic uterine nerve ablation for chronic pelvic pain were measured. For each measure, rates within each public hospital were compared by patient funding status descriptively and using multilevel models. Results: A total of 219 862 inpatients were included in analysis from 58 public hospitals across the 5 measures. A total of 38 365 (22 904 [59.7%] women; 12 448 [32.4%] aged 71-80 years) were eligible for knee arthroscopic debridement for osteoarthritis; 2520 (1924 [76.3%] women; 662 [26.3%] aged 71-80 years), vertebroplasty for osteoporotic spinal fractures; 162 285 (82 046 [50.6%] women; 28 255 [17.4%] aged 61-70 years), hyperbaric oxygen therapy; 15 916 (7126 [44.8%] aged 41-50 years), oophorectomy with hysterectomy; and 776 (327 [42.1%] aged 18-30 years), uterine nerve ablation for chronic pelvic pain. Overall rates of low-value services varied considerably between measures, with the lowest rate for hyperbaric oxygen therapy (0.3 procedures per 1000 inpatients [47 of 158 220 eligible inpatients]) and the highest for vertebroplasty (30.8 procedures per 1000 eligible patients [77 of 2501 eligible inpatients]). There was significant variation in rates between hospitals, with a few outlying hospitals (ie, <10), particularly for knee arthroscopy (range from 1.8 to 21.0 per 1000 eligible patients) and vertebroplasty (range from 13.1 to 70.4 per 1000 eligible patients), with higher numerical rates of low-value services among patients with private insurance than for those without. However, there was no association overall between patient insurance status and low-value services. Overall differences in rates among those with and without private insurance by individual procedure type were not statistically significant. Conclusions and Relevance: There was significant variation in rates of low-value services in public hospitals. While there was no overall association between private insurance and rate of low-value services, private insurance may be associated with low-value service rates in some hospitals. Further exploration of factors specific to local hospitals and practices are needed to reduce this unnecessary care.

Generating Real-World Evidence on the Quality Use, Benefits and Safety of Medicines in Australia: History, Challenges and a Roadmap for the Future.

Australia spends more than $20 billion annually on medicines, delivering significant health benefits for the population. However, inappropriate prescribing and medicine use also result in harm to individuals and populations, and waste of precious health resources. Medication data linked with other routine collections enable evidence generation in pharmacoepidemiology; the science of quantifying the use, effectiveness and safety of medicines in real-world clinical practice. This review details the history of medicines policy and data access in Australia, the strengths of existing data sources, and the infrastructure and governance enabling and impeding evidence generation in the field. Currently, substantial gaps persist with respect to cohesive, contemporary linked data sources supporting quality use of medicines, effectiveness and safety research; exemplified by Australia's limited capacity to contribute to the global effort in real-world studies of vaccine and disease-modifying treatments for COVID-19. We propose a roadmap to bolster the discipline, and population health more broadly, underpinned by a distinct capability governing and streamlining access to linked data assets for accredited researchers. Robust real-world evidence generation requires current data roadblocks to be remedied as a matter of urgency to deliver efficient and equitable health care and improve the health and well-being of all Australians.

The changing face of Australian data reforms: impact on pharmacoepidemiology research.

OBJECTIVE: A wealth of data is generated through Australia's universal health care arrangements. However, use of these data has been hampered by different federal and state legislation, privacy concerns and challenges in linking data across jurisdictions. A series of data reforms have been touted to increase population health research capacity in Australia, including pharmacoepidemiology research. Here we catalogued research leveraging Australia's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) data (2014-2018) and discussed these outputs in the context of previously implemented and new data reforms. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of population-based studies using PBS dispensing claims. Independent reviewers screened abstracts of 4,996 articles and 310 full-text manuscripts. We characterised publications according to study population, analytical approach, data sources used, aims and medicines focus. RESULTS: We identified 180 studies; 133 used individual-level data, 70 linked PBS dispensing claims with other health data (66 across jurisdictions). Studies using individual-level data focussed on Australians receiving government benefits (87 studies) rather than all PBS-eligible persons. 63 studies examined clinician or patient practices and 33 examined exposure-outcome relationships (27 evaluated medicines safety, 6 evaluated effectiveness). Medicines acting on the nervous and cardiovascular system account for the greatest volume of PBS medicines dispensed and were the most commonly studied (67 and 40 studies, respectively). Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents account for approximately one third of PBS expenditure but represented only 10% of studies in this review. CONCLUSIONS: The studies in this review represent more than a third of all population-based pharmacoepidemiology research published in the last three decades in Australia. Recent data reforms have contributed to this escalating output. However, studies are concentrated among specific subpopulations and medicines classes, and there remains a limited understanding of population benefits and harms derived from medicines use. The current draft Data Availability and Transparency legislation should further bolster efforts in population health research.

Cumulative annual coverage of meningococcal B vaccination in Australian general practice for three at-risk groups, 2014 to 2019.

Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B (MenB) is the most common cause of meningococcal disease in adolescents and young adults. In Australia, MenB vaccination has been available through private prescription since 2014 and has been recommended for at-risk groups including adolescents, young adults who smoke and people medically at risk. For each of these at-risk groups, we estimated cumulative annual coverage of MenB vaccination between 2014 and 2019. We also evaluated factors associated with vaccination coverage in 2019. Our analyses used electronic health records in the national MedicineInsight database for people regularly attending general practices. Cumulative vaccination coverage increased among the at-risk groups between 2014 and 2019: from 0.09% to 1.65% for adolescents, from 0.01% to 0.15% for young adults who smoke, and from 0.35% to 12.09% for people medically at risk. However, vaccination coverage in 2019 remained very low across these groups. Data sparsity prevented the evaluation of factors associated with vaccination coverage for smokers. We observed variation in the relative risk of being vaccinated by age, sex, socioeconomic and clinical factors for adolescents and people medically at risk. Still, the absolute magnitude of coverage was low across all subgroups examined, and indicates a need for strategies to increase vaccination uptake among at-risk groups irrespective of patient and practice characteristics. Our study provides baseline data for monitoring menB vaccination uptake among recommended groups in light of limited national data, especially for medically at-risk groups.

Variations in Long-term Opioid Therapy Definitions: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies Using Routinely Collected Data (2000-2019).

Routinely collected data have been increasingly used to assess long-term opioid therapy (LTOT) patterns, with very little guidance on how to measure LTOT from these data sources. We conducted a systematic review of studies published between January 2000 and July 2019 to catalogue LTOT definitions, the rationale for definitions and LTOT rates in observational research using routinely collected data in nonsurgical settings. We screened 4056 abstracts, 210 full-text manuscripts and included 128 studies, mostly from the United States (81%) and published between 2015 and 2019 (69%). We identified 78 definitions of LTOT, commonly operationalised as 90 days of use within a year (23%). Studies often used multiple criteria to derive definitions (60%), mostly based on measures of duration, such as supply days/days of use (66%), episode length (21%) or prescription fills within specified time periods (12%). Definitions were based on previous publications (63%), clinical judgment (16%) or empirical data (3%); 10% of studies applied more than one definition. LTOT definition was not provided with enough details for replication in 14 studies and 38 studies did not specify the opioids evaluated. Rates of LTOT within study populations ranged from 0.2% to 57% according to study design and definition used. We observed a substantial rise in the last 5 years in studies evaluating LTOT with large variability in the definitions used and poor reporting of the rationale and implementation of definitions. This variation impacts on research reproducibility, comparability of findings and the development of strategies aiming to curb therapy that is not guideline-recommended.

Adherence to Antiretroviral Regimens in Australia: A Nationwide Cohort Study.

The lifetime use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) highlights the need to understand patterns of and factors associated with adherence to cART. In this cohort study using a 10% random sample of dispensing claims data for eligible Australians, we identified 2042 people dispensed cART between January 2016 and December 2017 (mean age 48.0 ± 12.0 years old, 88.6% male, and 85.9% treatment experienced). We considered people to be adherent if the proportion of treatment coverage days was ≥80% in the 360 days after their first observed cART dispensing. We also used group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) to examine different patterns of adherence for 360 days from first observed cART dispensing. Most commonly, people receiving cART were treated with two nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors with an integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTI-46.6%). Overall, 1708 people [83.6% (95% confidential interval 82.0-85.3%)] remained adherent over 360 days. GBTM identified three distinct adherence patterns: nearly always adherent [67.8% (63.7-71.9%) of the cohort], moderate adherence [26.6% (23.0-30.1%)], and low adherence [5.6% (4.1-7.2%)]. People were more likely to belong to the "nearly always adherent" trajectory if they were older (per additional year of age), treated with an INSTI regimen, and on treatment for more than 6 months. Our study demonstrates that the 360-day adherence to cART is generally high, but approximately one-third maintain a moderate or low adherence pattern. The use of INSTI regimens and additional support of treatment adherence, especially among younger people and those initiating therapy, may further improve adherence.