Realization of the T Lineage Program Involves GATA-3 Induction of Bcl11b and Repression of Cdkn2b Expression.

The zinc-finger transcription factor GATA-3 plays a crucial role during early T cell development and also dictates later T cell differentiation outcomes. However, its role and collaboration with the Notch signaling pathway in the induction of T lineage specification and commitment have not been fully elucidated. We show that GATA-3 deficiency in mouse hematopoietic progenitors results in an early block in T cell development despite the presence of Notch signals, with a failure to upregulate Bcl11b expression, leading to a diversion along a myeloid, but not a B cell, lineage fate. GATA-3 deficiency in the presence of Notch signaling results in the apoptosis of early T lineage cells, as seen with inhibition of CDK4/6 (cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6) function, and dysregulated cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2b (Cdkn2b) expression. We also show that GATA-3 induces Bcl11b, and together with Bcl11b represses Cdkn2b expression; however, loss of Cdkn2b failed to rescue the developmental block of GATA-3-deficient T cell progenitor. Our findings provide a signaling and transcriptional network by which the T lineage program in response to Notch signals is realized.

Polymorphic Immune Mechanisms Regulate Commensal Repertoire.

Environmental influences (infections and diet) strongly affect a host's microbiota. However, host genetics may influence commensal communities, as suggested by the greater similarity between the microbiomes of identical twins compared to non-identical twins. Variability of human genomes and microbiomes complicates the understanding of polymorphic mechanisms regulating the commensal communities. Whereas animal studies allow genetic modifications, they are sensitive to influences known as "cage" or "legacy" effects. Here, we analyze ex-germ-free mice of various genetic backgrounds, including immunodeficient and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) congenic strains, receiving identical input microbiota. The host's polymorphic mechanisms affect the gut microbiome, and both innate (anti-microbial peptides, complement, pentraxins, and enzymes affecting microbial survival) and adaptive (MHC-dependent and MHC-independent) pathways influence the microbiota. In our experiments, polymorphic mechanisms regulate only a limited number of microbial lineages (independently of their abundance). Our comparative analyses suggest that some microbes may benefit from the specific immune responses that they elicit.

Cutting Edge: Lymphomyeloid-Primed Progenitor Cell Fates Are Controlled by the Transcription Factor Tal1.

Lymphoid specification is the process by which hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and their progeny become restricted to differentiation through the lymphoid lineages. The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors E2A and Lyl1 form a complex that promotes lymphoid specification. In this study, we demonstrate that Tal1, a Lyl1-related basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that promotes T acute lymphoblastic leukemia and is required for HSC specification, erythropoiesis, and megakaryopoiesis, is a negative regulator of murine lymphoid specification. We demonstrate that Tal1 limits the expression of multiple E2A target genes in HSCs and controls the balance of myeloid versus T lymphocyte differentiation potential in lymphomyeloid-primed progenitors. Our data provide insight into the mechanisms controlling lymphocyte specification and may reveal a basis for the unique functions of Tal1 and Lyl1 in T acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Transcription factor ID2 prevents E proteins from enforcing a naïve T lymphocyte gene program during NK cell development.

All innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) require the small helix-loop-helix transcription factor ID2, but the functions of ID2 are not well understood in these cells. We show that mature natural killer (NK) cells, the prototypic ILCs, developed in mice lacking ID2 but remained as precursor CD27+CD11b- cells that failed to differentiate into CD27-CD11b+ cytotoxic effectors. We show that ID2 limited chromatin accessibility at E protein binding sites near naïve T lymphocyte-associated genes including multiple chemokine receptors, cytokine receptors, and signaling molecules and altered the NK cell response to inflammatory cytokines. In the absence of ID2, CD27+CD11b- NK cells expressed ID3, a helix-loop-helix protein associated with naïve T cells, and they transitioned from a CD8 memory precursor-like to a naïve-like chromatin accessibility state. We demonstrate that ID3 was required for the development of ID2-deficient NK cells, indicating that completely unfettered E protein function is incompatible with NK cell development. These data solidify the roles of ID2 and ID3 as mediators of effector and naïve gene programs, respectively, and revealed a critical role for ID2 in promoting a chromatin state and transcriptional program in CD27+CD11b- NK cells that supports cytotoxic effector differentiation and cytokine responses.

Murine thymic NK cells are distinct from ILC1s and have unique transcription factor requirements.

Group 1 innate lymphoid cells include natural killer (NK) cells and ILC1s, which mediate the response to intracellular pathogens. Thymic NK (tNK) cells were described with hybrid features of immature NK cells and ILC1 but whether these cells are related to NK cells or ILC1 has not been fully investigated. We report that murine tNK cells expressed the NK-cell associated transcription factor EOMES and developed independent of the essential ILC1 factor TBET, confirming their placement within the NK lineage. Moreover, tNK cells resemble NK cells rather than ILC1 in their requirements for the E protein transcription factor inhibitor ID2. We provide further insight into the mechanisms governing tNK-cell development by showing that the transcription factor ETS1 prevented tNK cell acquisition of the conventional NK-cell maturation markers CD11b and KLRG1. Our data reveal few ILC1 in the thymus and clarify the identity and developmental requirements of tNK cells.

Repression of Ccr9 transcription in mouse T lymphocyte progenitors by the Notch signaling pathway.

The chemokine receptor CCR9 controls the immigration of multipotent hematopoietic progenitor cells into the thymus to sustain T cell development. Postimmigration, thymocytes downregulate CCR9 and migrate toward the subcapsular zone where they recombine their TCR ß-chain and γ-chain gene loci. CCR9 is subsequently upregulated and participates in the localization of thymocytes during their selection for self-tolerant receptor specificities. Although the dynamic regulation of CCR9 is essential for early T cell development, the mechanisms controlling CCR9 expression have not been determined. In this article, we show that key regulators of T cell development, Notch1 and the E protein transcription factors E2A and HEB, coordinately control the expression of Ccr9. E2A and HEB bind at two putative enhancers upstream of Ccr9 and positively regulate CCR9 expression at multiple stages of T cell development. In contrast, the canonical Notch signaling pathway prevents the recruitment of p300 to the putative Ccr9 enhancers, resulting in decreased acetylation of histone H3 and a failure to recruit RNA polymerase II to the Ccr9 promoter. Although Notch signaling modestly modulates the binding of E proteins to one of the two Ccr9 enhancers, we found that Notch signaling represses Ccr9 in T cell lymphoma lines in which Ccr9 transcription is independent of E protein function. Our data support the hypothesis that activation of Notch1 has a dominant-negative effect on Ccr9 transcription and that Notch1 and E proteins control the dynamic expression of Ccr9 during T cell development.

E proteins and the regulation of early lymphocyte development.

Lymphopoiesis generates mature B, T, and NK lymphocytes from hematopoietic stem cells via a series of increasingly restricted developmental intermediates. The transcriptional networks that regulate these fate choices are composed of both common and lineage-specific components, which combine to create a cellular context that informs the developmental response to external signals. E proteins are an important factor during lymphopoiesis, and E2A in particular is required for normal T- and B-cell development. Although the other E proteins, HEB and E2-2, are expressed during lymphopoiesis and can compensate for some of E2A's activity, E2A proteins have non-redundant functions during early T-cell development and at multiple checkpoints throughout B lymphopoiesis. More recently, a role for E2A has been demonstrated in the generation of lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitors and shown to favor their specification toward lymphoid over myeloid lineages. This review summarizes both our current understanding of the wide-ranging functions of E proteins during the development of adaptive lymphocytes and the novel functions of E2A in orchestrating a lymphoid-biased cellular context in early multipotent progenitors.

Beyond tumor necrosis factor receptor: TRADD signaling in toll-like receptors.

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1-associated death domain protein (TRADD) is the core adaptor recruited to TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) upon TNFalpha stimulation. In cells from TRADD-deficient mice, TNFalpha-mediated apoptosis and TNFalpha-stimulated NF-kappaB, JNK, and ERK activation are defective. TRADD is also important for germinal center formation, DR3-mediated costimulation of T cells, and TNFalpha-mediated inflammatory responses in vivo. TRADD deficiency does not enhance IFNgamma-induced signaling. Importantly, TRADD has a novel role in TLR3 and TLR4 signaling. TRADD participates in the TLR4 complex formed upon LPS stimulation, and TRADD-deficient macrophages show impaired cytokine production in response to TLR ligands in vitro. Thus, TRADD is a multifunctional protein crucial both for TNFR1 signaling and other signaling pathways relevant to immune responses.

Generation of immunocompetent T cells from embryonic stem cells.

Mature hematopoietic cells, like all other terminally differentiated lineages, arise during ontogeny via a series of increasingly restricted intermediates. Hematopoietic progenitors derive from the mesoderm, which gives rise to hemangioblasts that can differentiate into endothelial or endocardial precursors, or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). These HSCs, in turn, may either self-renew or differentiate into lineage-restricted progenitors, and ultimately mature effector cells. The ability to generate most hematopoietic lineages in a two-dimensional in vitro environment has facilitated our study of this complex process. Until recently, T lymphocytes were the exception, and appeared to require the specific three-dimensional microenvironment of the thymus to develop. However, here we describe a protocol for the generation of immunocompetent T lymphocytes from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in vitro, within the two-dimensional microenvironment provided by OP9 bone marrow stromal cells that have been transduced to express the Notch ligand Delta-like-1. This procedure will facilitate further study of T lymphocytes by providing a model system in which the effects of genetic and environmental manipulations of ESC-derived progenitors can be examined, and the mechanisms of tolerance potentially dissected, in vitro.

T-cell potential and development in vitro: the OP9-DL1 approach.

In vivo, T cells develop in the thymus from bone marrow-derived hematopoietic progenitors. Similarly, T cells can develop in vitro in model systems that mimic thymic function. The recent development of the OP9-DL1 cell culture system, a two-dimensional T-inductive environment, has provided greater access to the processes of commitment and development in T lymphocytes.

In vitro generation of T lymphocytes from embryonic stem cells.

Mature hematopoietic cells, like all other terminally differentiated lineages, arise during ontogeny via a series of increasingly restricted intermediates. Hematopoietic progenitors have their origin in the mesoderm, which gives rise to hemangioblasts that can differentiate into endothelial or endocardial precursors or hematopoietic stem cells. These hematopoietic stem cells in turn may either self-renew or differentiate into lineage-restricted progenitors and ultimately mature effector cells. The ability to generate most hematopoietic lineages in a two-dimensional environment in vitro has facilitated our study of this complex process. Until recently, the T-lymphocyte lineage was the exception and appeared to require the specialized three-dimensional microenvironment of the thymus to develop. However, here we describe a protocol for the generation of T lymphocytes from embryonic stem cells in vitro, within a two-dimensional microenvironment, provided by OP9 bone marrow stromal cells. This procedure will facilitate further study of early T lymphopoiesis by providing a simple model system in which the effects of genetic and environmental manipulations of embryonic stem cell-derived progenitors can be examined without requiring other more complex in vivo or in vitro experimental approaches.

Notch signaling requires GATA-2 to inhibit myelopoiesis from embryonic stem cells and primary hemopoietic progenitors.

The bone marrow and thymus, although both hemopoietic environments, induce very distinct differentiation outcomes. The former supports hemopoietic stem cell self-renewal and multiple hemopoietic lineages, while the latter supports T lymphopoiesis almost exclusively. This distinction suggests that the thymic environment acts to restrict the hemopoietic fates available to thymic immigrants. In this study, we demonstrate that the addition of the Notch ligand Delta-like-1 (Dll-1) to an in vitro system that otherwise supports myelopoiesis, greatly reduces the myelopoietic potential of stem cells or uncommitted progenitors. In contrast, committed myeloid progenitors mature regardless of the presence of Dll-1. The block in myelopoiesis is the direct result of Notch signaling within the hemopoietic progenitor, and Dll-1-induced signals cause a rapid increase in the expression of the zinc finger transcription factor GATA-2. Importantly, in the absence of GATA-2, Dll-1-induced signals fail to inhibit commitment to the myeloid fate. Taken together, our results support a role for GATA-2 in allowing Dll-1 to restrict non-T cell lineage differentiation outcomes.

In vitro generation of lymphocytes from embryonic stem cells.

Lymphocytes arise during ontogeny via a series of increasingly restricted intermediates. Initially, the mesoderm gives rise to hemangioblasts, which can differentiate into endothelial precursors, or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs can either self-renew or differentiate into lineage-restricted progenitors and, ultimately, to mature effector cells. This complex process is only beginning to be understood, and the ability to generate lymphocytes from embryonic stem (ES) cells in vitro will facilitate further study by providing a model system in which the effects of genetic and environmental manipulations of ES-cell-derived progenitors can be examined. In this protocol, we describe procedures for generating either B- and NK- or T-lymphocytes from mouse ES cells in vitro.

Induction of T cell development and establishment of T cell competence from embryonic stem cells differentiated in vitro.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) have the potential to serve as a renewable source of transplantable tissue-specific stem cells. However, the molecular cues necessary to direct the differentiation of ESCs toward specific cell lineages remain obscure. Here we report the successful induction of ESC differentiation into mature functional T lymphocytes with a simple in vitro coculture system. The directed differentiation of ESCs into T cells required the engagement of Notch receptors by Delta-like 1 ligand (DL1) expressed on the OP9-DL1 stromal cell line. We found a normal program of T cell differentiation in ESC-OP9-DL1 cell cocultures. ESC-derived T cell progenitors effectively reconstituted the T cell compartment of immunodeficient mice, enabling an effective response to a viral infection. These findings provide a powerful tool for the molecular analysis of T cell development and open new avenues for the development of immunotherapeutic approaches using defined sources of stem cells.

In vitro generation of T lymphocytes from embryonic stem cell-derived prehematopoietic progenitors.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells can differentiate into most blood cells in vitro, providing a powerful model system to study hematopoiesis. However, ES cell-derived T lymphocytes have not been generated in vitro, and it was unresolved whether such potential is absent or merely difficult to isolate. Because the latter case might result from rapid commitment to non-T-cell fates, we isolated ES cell-derived prehematopoietic precursors for reconstitution of fetal thymic organ cultures. We found a transient Flk1+CD45- subset of these precursors generated T lymphocytes in vitro, and the use of reaggregate thymic organ cultures greatly enhanced reconstitution frequency. These findings reveal that ES cells can exhibit in vitro T-cell potential, but this is restricted to early stages of ES cell differentiation. Moreover, the results support the notion that the thymic microenvironment can induce T-cell differentiation from a subset of prehematopoietic progenitors and suggest deficient migration into intact thymi hindered previous attempts to generate T cells in vitro from ES cell-derived progenitors. These findings demonstrate that a defined subset of ES cells has the potential to generate T cells in vitro and could contribute to greater understanding of the molecular events of hematopoietic induction and T-cell lineage commitment.

Regulatory cytokine production stimulated by DNA vaccination against an altered form of glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 in nonobese diabetic mice.

Nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice develop a T-cell dependent autoimmune form of diabetes, in which glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) is an important islet target antigen. Intramuscular DNA vaccination with a plasmid encoding native GAD65 (a cytosolic antigen) did not significantly alter the incidence of diabetes, but vaccination against an altered form of GAD65 with a signal peptide (spGAD), which is secreted in vitro, was protective. The preventive effect was further enhanced by repeated injections of the spGAD plasmid. Following DNA injection into muscle GAD65 was expressed for several months, and this was not accompanied by an inflammatory response. Immunization against GAD65 was not associated with substantial alterations in cytokine production by splenic lymphocytes stimulated with immunogenic GAD65 peptides. In contrast, spGAD induced increased secretion of both interleukin 10 and interferon gamma and a striking decrease in the interferon gamma/interleukin 10 ratio in culture supernatants. Similarly, spGAD-immunized mice had higher serum interleukin 10 levels and lower serum interferon gamma levels than other groups, suggesting a systemic effect. In nondiabetic mice there was increased basal production of transforming growth factor beta(1), which was enhanced by antigenic stimulation. These alterations in regulatory cytokine production were apparent both early and late after the treatment was initiated. These findings suggest that DNA vaccination against spGAD protects NOD mice by increasing regulatory cytokine production.