Potential risk factors for the presence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in finishing pigs on conventional farms in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: The parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) causes a substantial human disease burden worldwide. Ingesting improperly cooked pork containing T. gondii is considered one of the major sources of human infection in Europe and North America. Consequently, control of T. gondii infections in pigs is warranted. The European Food Safety Authority advised to perform serological monitoring of pigs and to conduct farm audits for the presence of risk factors. Serological monitoring was implemented in several Dutch slaughterhouses, one to six blood samples (a total of 5134 samples) were taken from each delivery of finishing pigs and samples were tested for the presence of anti-T. gondii antibodies. Using these test results, a cross-sectional study was initiated to assess the association between the within-herd T. gondii seroprevalence and the presence of risk factors for T. gondii infections at 69 conventional finishing pig farms in the Netherlands. RESULTS: A multivariable model showed significant (P ≤ 0.05) association with twelve potential risk factors: type of farm, presence of dogs, presence of ruminants, use of boots, use of shower and farm clothing, mode of rodent control, bedding accessibility for rodents, presence of cats, type of drinking water, heating of the feed, use of goat whey and shielding of birds. CONCLUSIONS: Serological monitoring of finishing pigs for T. gondii in slaughterhouses can be used to identify the presence of T. gondii risk factors on Dutch conventional finishing pig farms and seems a valuable tool to guide and monitor the control of T. gondii in pork production.

Effectiveness and costs of interventions to reduce the within-farm Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence on pig farms in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: The parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is recognized as one of the major foodborne pathogens with a high human disease burden. To control T. gondii infections in pigs, European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) advises serological testing of pigs and audits of pig farms to identify risk factors for T. gondii infection. In line with this approach, the aim of the current study was to assess the effectiveness and costs of intervention measures implemented to reduce the T. gondii seroprevalence on finishing pig farms in the Netherlands. A crossover clinical trial was conducted at five case farms were their own control and the cross-over moment was the implementation of interventions to reduce risk factors. Each of the case farms had a farm-specific intervention strategy with one principal intervention measure (neutering of cats, professional rodent control or covering food storage). RESULTS: All finishing pig farms (n = 5) showed a reduction in T. gondii seroprevalence within one year of implementing the intervention strategy. Cat neutering (n = 3) and feed coverage (n = 1) showed statistically significant reductions in seroprevalence. Rodent control (n = 1) did not show a statistically significant reduction. The estimated reduction in seroprevalence in response to the neutering of cats and feed coverage were 67 and 96 %, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our work demonstrates that it is possible to reduce the within-farm T. gondii seroprevalence within one year after interventions were implemented to reduce T. gondii risk factors. This information is essential and encouraging for policy makers, food business operators, and farmers to implement in their risk assessment and to apply to food safety control systems.

Quarter of pig farmers readily viewed information on Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs provided in a data exchange system of a Dutch slaughter company.

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a food safety hazard causing a substantial human disease burden. Because infected pig meat is estimated to attribute 12 % to this disease burden, it is important to control T. gondii infection in pigs. Providing pig farmers with information on T. gondii infection in general, and more specific on the status on their farm, could motivate them to take actions. In this study, we analysed the strategy pig farmers used to view specific T. gondii information provided for the first time on webpages in an existing data exchange system of a Dutch pig slaughter company. The available information for farmers comprised a webpage displaying the farm-level T. gondii seroprevalence and a webpage with information on risk sources and control measures for T. gondii infection in pigs and on human health consequences of a T. gondii infection. A total of 1404 owners of pig farms logged in the data exchange system. Of these, a quarter viewed the webpage with information on T. gondii seroprevalence, and about of third of them also viewed the webpage with the information on risk sources and control measures. T. gondii seroprevalence exceeded 2.0 % at only 0.6 % of these 1404 farms. The seroprevalence level on a particular farm neither influenced the likelihood of the farmer viewing the webpage with the T. gondii seroprevalence, nor the likelihood of them continuing to the webpage with the additional information. In the days when the pop-up message was included, the number of views registered on the seroprevalence and the additional information webpages rose nine and two times, respectively. Since the majority of views was in the period with a pop-up message pointing to this information we conclude that a targeted pop-up might help to transfer needed information to farmers with higher T. gondii seroprevalence at farm-level. More general, our study provides valuable insight into pig farmers' viewing strategies of new information on food safety hazards provided in a slaughter data exchange system.

Antibiotics use versus profitability on sow farms in the Netherlands.

In 2009, the Dutch government provided policy objectives (i.e., targets) for a reduction in veterinary antibiotics use of -20 % in 2011, -50 % in 2013 and -70 % in 2015 relative to the use in 2009. The relationship between antibiotics use and performance of Dutch sow farms during this policy reform was analysed using the Farm Accountancy Data Network database comprising cross-sectional farm data from 2004 to 2016. The results show that there is a significant downward trend in antibiotics use of 57 %. Panel data analysis (n = 74 sow farms) revealed that the reduction in antibiotic use did not lead to negative effects on technical or economic farm results. A follow-up survey was conducted on measures taken to improve animal health, which made the reduction in antibiotic use feasible. Of the 79 sow farmers approached, 55 participated in this survey. Sow farmers used a variety of relatively easy and affordable measures, such as more attention to hygiene, use of pain killers and anti-inflammatory agents, or applied more preventive vaccinations. Multivariable linear regression models showed that the intention, perceived risk and uncertainty, and perceived capability (to keep or get the use of antibiotics under the target value) were the most important predictors for antibiotics use from 2014 to 2016. Sow farmers who used more antibiotics were more concerned that low antibiotics use compromises their farm results, perceived more risk and uncertainty, and thought to a lesser extent that they have enough knowledge and time. These results indicate that providing these farmers with knowledge and information on management practices to reduce the use of antibiotics may be helpful. Thereby, it would be useful to focus on continuous involvement of the veterinarian and possibly the feed supplier, preferably by means of individual advice, as the results showed that individual advice was the preferred way to gather knowledge for the interviewed sow farmers and the veterinarian appeared to be the most important source of information to the interviewed sow farmers, followed by the feed supplier. In summary, the study shows that decrease in antibiotics use can be quite successful without compromising on the economic or technical performance, and moreover taking into account farmers' attitudes, perceptions and preferences can be helpful to get a better understanding of farmers' decision making and is useful for the design of tailor-made interventions.

Behavioural factors of Dutch pig producers related to control of toxoplasma gondii infections in pigs.

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a food safety hazard which causes a substantial human disease burden. Infected pig meat is a common risk source of toxoplasmosis. Therefore, it is important to control T. gondii infections in pigs. Improving farm management to control the introduction risk likely contributes to that aim. A pig producer only implements control measures when he or she is aware of the underlying problem, wants to solve it, and is able to solve it. If a pig producer is not implementing appropriate control measures, behavioural change interventions can be introduced to overcome constraining behavioural factors. To aid in designing behaviour change interventions, this study analysed behavioural factors of Dutch pig producers in terms of capability, opportunity and motivation to control T. gondii infections in pigs. Key risk sources analysed focused on the life cycle of T. gondii, with cats as primary host, rodents as intermediate host, and uncovered feed as an important risk source. A survey was conducted among Dutch pig producers. Responses were analysed using descriptive and cluster analysis. Results showed that around 80% of the 67 responding pig producers was aware of key risk sources of T. gondii infections in pigs. Respondents also rated risk sources that are not known to increase the risk of T. gondii infections in pigs as somewhat important. Many respondents did not know about potential consequences of a T. gondii infection in pigs on human health. Two third expected some impact on pig performance, which is incorrect because T. gondii generally does not make pigs ill. Most respondents indicated to have the motivation and opportunity to control the risk sources cats, rodents and uncovered feed. Three pig producer clusters were identified: one with higher capability to control rodents, one with lower motivation to control rodents and cats and to cover feed storages, and one with lower scores on the importance of rodent control for pigs, human health and farm profit. We conclude that, although many pig producers have knowledge about risk sources for and consequences of T. gondii infections in pigs, the public health impact and risks of T. gondii infections in pigs are not yet common knowledge among all Dutch pig producers. Furthermore, Dutch pig producers differ in opportunity and motivation to control T. gondii infections. Targeted interventions to address these specific constraining behavioural factors can help to improve the control of T. gondii infections in pigs.

Understanding growers' decisions to manage invasive pathogens at the farm level.

Globalization causes plant production systems to be increasingly threatened by invasive pests and pathogens. Much research is devoted to support management of these risks. Yet, the role of growers' perceptions and behavior in risk management has remained insufficiently analyzed. This article aims to fill this gap by addressing risk management of invasive pathogens from a sociopsychological perspective. An analytical framework based on the Theory of Planned Behavior was used to explain growers' decisions on voluntary risk management measures. Survey information from 303 Dutch horticultural growers was statistically analyzed, including regression and cluster analysis. It appeared that growers were generally willing to apply risk management measures, and that poor risk management was mainly due to perceived barriers, such as high costs and doubts regarding efficacy of management measures. The management measures applied varied considerably among growers, depending on production sector and farm-specific circumstances. Growers' risk perception was found to play a role in their risk management, although the causal relation remained unclear. These results underscore the need to apply a holistic perspective to farm level management of invasive pathogen risk, considering the entire package of management measures and accounting for sector- and farm-specific circumstances. Moreover, they demonstrate that invasive pathogen risk management can benefit from a multidisciplinary approach that incorporates growers' perceptions and behavior.