Gender differences between adolescents with autism in emergency psychiatry.

LAY ABSTRACT: Among adolescents seen for psychiatric emergency consultation, the percentage of adolescents with autism is increasing over the years. This applies even more to girls than to boys. We collected data of 1378 adolescents aged 12-18 years who were seen for urgent consultation by mobile psychiatric emergency services in the Netherlands. Among these, there were 64 autistic girls and 125 autistic boys. We wanted to know more about differences in problems between autistic and typical developing adolescents in crisis, both to prevent crisis and to improve services. The percentage of adolescents with autism increased over the years studied. Autistic adolescents experienced more severe impairment in functioning compared to typically developing adolescents. Compared to other adolescents, both boys and girls on the autism spectrum were diagnosed less frequently with mood disorders, behavioral disorders, relational problems, and abuse. Autistic girls had a higher suicide risk and suffered more often from anxiety disorders than autistic boys, while autistic boys had a longer history of problems. Outpatient care for children with autism should include easy access to specialized professionals who aim to reduce anxiety and help young people with autism to cope with the challenges of adolescence. Because possibly signs were missed during the emergency consultation, we recommend that as part of the routine procedure in crisis situations adolescents with autism are asked about mood and behavioral problems explicitly, as well as about negative life events.

Suicide risk, personality disorder and hospital admission after assessment by psychiatric emergency services.

BACKGROUND: The main objectives of the mobile Psychiatric Emergency Services (PES) in the Netherlands are to assess the presence of a mental disorder, to estimate risk to self or others, and to initiate continuity of care, including psychiatric hospital admission. The aim of this study was to assess the associations between the level of suicidality and risk of voluntary or involuntary admission in patients with and without a personality disorder who were presented to mobile PES. METHODS: Observational data were obtained in three areas of the Netherlands from 2007 to 2016. In total, we included 71,707 contacts of patients aged 18 to 65 years. The outcome variable was voluntary or involuntary psychiatric admission. Suicide risk and personality disorder were assessed by PES-clinicians. Multivariable regression analysis was used to explore associations between suicide risk, personality disorder, and voluntary or involuntary admission. RESULTS: Independently of the level of suicide risk, suicidal patients diagnosed with personality disorder were less likely to be admitted voluntarily than those without such a diagnosis (admission rate .37 versus .46 respectively). However, when the level of suicide risk was moderate or high, those with a personality disorder who were admitted involuntarily had the same probability of involuntary admission as those without such a disorder. CONCLUSIONS: While the probability of voluntary admission was lower in those diagnosed with a personality disorder, independent of the level of suicidality, the probability of involuntary admission was only lower in those whose risk of suicide was low. Future longitudinal studies should investigate the associations between (involuntary) admission and course of suicidality in personality disorder.

Comorbid depression, but not comorbid anxiety disorders, predicts poor outcome in anxiety disorders.

Influence of type of comorbidity was studied over the course of 1 year in a sample of 141 outpatients with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder, who were receiving different forms of cognitive behavior therapy. Influence of type of comorbidity was determined on the basis of change scores (linear regression analysis) and remission data (Kaplan-Meier survival analysis). Three categories, as assessed at baseline, were compared: no comorbidity, comorbidity among anxiety disorders, and comorbidity with mood disorders. Primary outcome variable: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory State subscale measured at four assessments (0, 12, 24, and 52 weeks). Analyses of change and remission indicated that comorbidity with mood disorders led to (i) less improvement and (ii) a lower remission rate than comorbidity among anxiety disorders and no comorbidity. Because comorbidity has a critical influence on prognosis, it seems to be important to make a reliable diagnosis of the disorders present.

The Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ): a validation study of a multidimensional self-report questionnaire to assess distress, depression, anxiety and somatization.

BACKGROUND: The Four-Dimensional Symptom Questionnaire (4DSQ) is a self-report questionnaire that has been developed in primary care to distinguish non-specific general distress from depression, anxiety and somatization. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate its criterion and construct validity. METHODS: Data from 10 different primary care studies have been used. Criterion validity was assessed by comparing the 4DSQ scores with clinical diagnoses, the GPs' diagnosis of any psychosocial problem for Distress, standardised psychiatric diagnoses for Depression and Anxiety, and GPs' suspicion of somatization for Somatization. ROC analyses and logistic regression analyses were used to examine the associations. Construct validity was evaluated by investigating the inter-correlations between the scales, the factorial structure, the associations with other symptom questionnaires, and the associations with stress, personality and social functioning. The factorial structure of the 4DSQ was assessed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The associations with other questionnaires were assessed with Pearson correlations and regression analyses. RESULTS: Regarding criterion validity, the Distress scale was associated with any psychosocial diagnosis (area under the ROC curve [AUC] 0.79), the Depression scale was associated with major depression (AUC = 0.83), the Anxiety scale was associated with anxiety disorder (AUC = 0.66), and the Somatization scale was associated with the GPs' suspicion of somatization (AUC = 0.65). Regarding the construct validity, the 4DSQ scales appeared to have considerable inter-correlations (r = 0.35-0.71). However, 30-40% of the variance of each scale was unique for that scale. CFA confirmed the 4-factor structure with a comparative fit index (CFI) of 0.92. The 4DSQ scales correlated with most other questionnaires measuring corresponding constructs. However, the 4DSQ Distress scale appeared to correlate with some other depression scales more than the 4DSQ Depression scale. Measures of stress (i.e. life events, psychosocial problems, and work stress) were mainly associated with Distress, while Distress, in turn, was mainly associated with psychosocial dysfunctioning, including sick leave. CONCLUSION: The 4DSQ seems to be a valid self-report questionnaire to measure distress, depression, anxiety and somatization in primary care patients. The 4DSQ Distress scale appears to measure the most general, most common, expression of psychological problems.

Treatment of anxiety disorders in primary care practice: a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders are prevalent in primary care. Psychological treatment is effective but time-consuming, and there are waiting lists for secondary care. Interest has therefore grown in developing guidelines for treatment that would be feasible in primary care. AIM: To compare the effectiveness and feasibility of guided self-help, the Anxiety Disorder Guidelines of the Netherlands College of General Practitioners and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). DESIGN OF STUDY: Randomised controlled study lasting 12 weeks with follow-up at 3 and 9 months for primary care patients with panic disorder and/or generalised anxiety disorder. SETTING: The first two forms of treatment were carried out by 46 GPs who were randomly assigned to one or the other form. CBT was carried out by cognitive behaviour therapists in a psychiatric outpatient clinic. METHOD: Participants (n = 154) were randomly assigned to one of the three forms of treatment. The main outcome measure used was the state subscale of the Spielberger Anxiety Inventory. RESULTS: All three forms of treatment gave significant improvement between pre-test and post-test, and this improvement remained stable between post-test and the follow-ups. The results obtained with the three treatment forms did not differ significantly over time. The feasibility of the Anxiety Disorder Guidelines was low compared with that of guided self-help. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that primary care patients with prevalent anxiety disorders for whom the GP does not find referral necessary can be adequately treated by the GP. Psychiatric outpatient clinic referral does not give superior results. Guided self-help is easier for the GP to carry out than a less highly-structured treatment like that laid down in the Anxiety Disorder Guidelines.

Efficacy of self-help manuals for anxiety disorders in primary care: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to review effectiveness studies of self-help manuals for anxiety disorders in primary care. METHODS: A systematic review of six identified randomized controlled trials was carried out. In addition to outcome, the articles were coded on quality variables. RESULTS: The studies included differed with respect to the methodological quality, measurements used and size of the study population. Despite these differences, global results suggest that a self-help manual is an effective treatment possibility for primary care patients with anxiety disorders. The more time that was spent on guidance on the use of the self-help manual the greater was its effectiveness. CONCLUSION: Treatment with a self-help manual for anxiety disorders may be effective in primary care. Data are lacking on the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of these manuals.