Rare Sugar Metabolism and Impact on Insulin Sensitivity along the Gut-Liver-Muscle Axis In Vitro.

Rare sugars have recently attracted attention as potential sugar replacers. Understanding the biochemical and biological behavior of these sugars is of importance in (novel) food formulations and prevention of type 2 diabetes. In this study, we investigated whether rare sugars may positively affect intestinal and liver metabolism, as well as muscle insulin sensitivity, compared to conventional sugars. Rare disaccharide digestibility, hepatic metabolism of monosaccharides (respirometry) and the effects of sugars on skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity (impaired glucose uptake) were investigated in, respectively, Caco-2, HepG2 and L6 cells or a triple coculture model with these cells. Glucose and fructose, but not l-arabinose, acutely increased extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) responses in HepG2 cells and impaired glucose uptake in L6 cells following a 24 h exposure at 28 mM. Cellular bioenergetics and digestion experiments with Caco-2 cells indicate that especially trehalose (α1-1α), D-Glc-α1,2-D-Gal, D-Glc-α1,2-D-Rib and D-Glc-α1,3-L-Ara experience delayed digestion and reduced cellular impact compared to maltose (α1-4), without differences on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in a short-term setup with a Caco-2/HepG2/L6 triple coculture. These results suggest a potential for l-arabinose and specific rare disaccharides to improve metabolic health; however, additional in vivo research with longer sugar exposures should confirm their beneficial impact on insulin sensitivity in humans.

Comparative assessment of physicochemical, structural and functional properties of dietary fiber extracted from mango (Mangifera indica L.) and soursop (Annona muricata) peels.

The potential of soursop, a less well-known tropical fruit, was assessed as a source of dietary fiber (DF) and compared to mango. After optimizing the conditions to maximize the extraction yield of soluble and insoluble DF, their structural, physicochemical, and functional properties were evaluated. The results showed that soursop excelled in total and insoluble DF content (50 % higher than mango). The antioxidant response and reducing sugar content obtained for soursop were significantly higher than in mango. Yet, the insoluble fraction in both fruits was characterized by higher antioxidant activity and phenolic content. The chemical composition of both fruits revealed that glucose and potassium were the main sugar and mineral, respectively. Lactic, formic, and acetic acids were the main short-chain fatty acids produced after in vitro colonic fermentation with Lacticaseibacillus casei and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, and negligible amounts of butyric, propionic, and valeric acids were detected after 48-h-fermentation, independent of the fruit. Soursop is a promising rich source of DF that can be used together with mango to develop and enhance foods' textural and nutritional characteristics.

In vitro bioaccessibility and uptake of ß-carotene from encapsulated carotenoids from mango by-products in a coupled gastrointestinal digestion/Caco-2 cell model.

ß-carotene is a carotenoid with provitamin A activity and other health benefits, which needs to become bioavailable upon oral intake to exert its biological activity. A better understanding of its behaviour and stability in the gastrointestinal tract and means to increase its bioavailability are highly needed. Using an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion method coupled to an intestinal cell model, we explored the stability, gastrointestinal bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of ß-carotene from microparticles containing carotenoid extracts derived from mango by-products. Three types of microparticles were tested: one with the carotenoid extract as such, one with added inulin and one with added fructooligosaccharides. Overall, ß-carotene was relatively stable during the in vitro digestion, as total recoveries were above 68 %. Prebiotics in the encapsulating material, especially inulin, enhanced the bioaccessibility of ß-carotene almost 2-fold compared to microparticles without prebiotics. Likewise, ß-carotene bioaccessibility increased proportionally with bile salt concentrations during digestion. Yet, a bile salts level above 10 mM did not contribute markedly to ß-carotene bioaccessibility of prebiotic containing microparticles. Cellular uptake experiments with non-filtered gastrointestinal digests yielded higher absolute levels of ß-carotene taken up in the epithelial cells as compared to uptake assays with filtered digests. However, the proportional uptake of ß-carotene was higher for filtered digests (24 - 31 %) than for non-filtered digests (2 - 8 %). Matrix-dependent carotenoid uptake was only visible in the unfiltered medium, thereby pointing to possible other cellular transport mechanisms of non-micellarized carotenoids, besides the concentration effect. Regardless of a filtration step, inulin-amended microparticles consistently resulted in a higher ß-carotene uptake than regular microparticles or FOS-amended microparticles. In conclusion, encapsulation of carotenoid extracts from mango by-products displayed chemical stability and release of a bioaccessible ß-carotene fraction upon gastrointestinal digestion. This indicates the potential of the microparticles to be incorporated into functional foods with provitamin A activity.

Synthesis of the 1,5-Benzothiazepane Scaffold - Established Methods and New Developments.

The 1,5-benzothiazepane structure is an important heterocyclic moiety present in a variety of commercial drugs and pharmaceuticals. This privileged scaffold exhibits a diversity of biological activities, including antimicrobial, antibacterial, anti-epileptic, anti-HIV, antidepressant, antithrombotic and anticancer properties. Its important pharmacological potential renders research into the development of new and efficient synthetic methods of high relevance. In the first part of this review, an overview of different synthetic approaches toward 1,5-benzothiazepane and its derivatives is provided, ranging from established protocols to recent (enantioselective) methods that promote sustainability. In the second part, several structural characteristics influencing biological activity are briefly explored, providing a few insights into the structure-activity relationships of these compounds.

Glycosidic linkage of rare and new-to-nature disaccharides reshapes gut microbiota in vitro.

The impact of glycosidic linkage of seven rare and new-to-nature disaccharides on gut bacteria was assessed in vitro. The community shift of the inocula from four donors in response to 1 % (w/v) disaccharide supplementation was captured by sequencing the 16S rRNA gene. A significant loss of bacterial alpha diversity, short lag time, low pH, and high total short-chain fatty acid displayed a faster fermentation of trehalose(Glc-α1,1α-Glc) and fibrulose(fructan, DP2-10). Bacteroides reduced in relative abundance under disaccharide supplementation suggesting a loss in complex carbohydrates metabolizing capacity. Fibrulose and l-arabinose glucoside(Glc-α1,3-l-Ara) significantly stimulated bifidobacteria but was suppressed with trehalose, ribose glucoside(Glc-α1,2-Rib), and 4'-epitrehalose(Glc-α1,1α-Gal) supplementation. Albeit insignificant, bifidobacteria increased with 4'-epikojibiose(Glc-α1,2-Gal), nigerose(Glc-α1,3-Glc), and kojibiose(Glc-α1,2-Glc). Prior conditioning of inoculum in kojibiose medium profoundly induced bifidobacteria by 44 % and 55 % upon reinoculation into kojibiose and fibrulose-supplemented media respectively. This study has demonstrated the importance of the disaccharide structure-function relationship in driving the gut bacterial community.

The Influence of Salt Sensitivity Phenotype on Sodium Excretion and Diuresis: A Chrononutrition Pilot Study.

Background: Chrononutrition studies on interaction of diet/nutrients on endogenous circadian clocks and meal timing on metabolic homeostasis may be of importance in the management of nocturnal polyuria (NP), owing to loss of circadian rhythm in nighttime urination. Dietary salt restriction is an increasingly popular lifestyle recommendation for NP patients. Aim: This study aims to evaluate the effect of an acute salt load on diuresis and to study the phenomenon of salt sensitivity. Methodology. Young, healthy men (n = 21, fasted and sober) ingested 500 ml of water on the control day and 8 g and 12 g of salt with water (500 ml) on two other days. Blood and urine samples were collected at 0 hrs, 2 hrs, and 4 hrs and voided volumes were recorded. Diuresis, serum and urine osmolality, sodium, potassium, urea, and creatinine were measured. Salt sensitivity was determined based on the rate of sodium excretion. Results: Compared to 8 g, ingestion of 12 g of salt significantly increased diuresis after 4 hrs. Pure water load induced fast diuresis, whereas salt and water load initially reduced diuresis and promoted late increase in diuresis. The total voided volume was significantly lower in the salt sensitive individuals. Conclusion: Taken together, salt sensitivity profile and type and time of fluid intake are important considerations to build effective personalized lifestyle recommendations for NP patients, which needs further investigation.

Metabolism and Health Effects of Rare Sugars in a CACO-2/HepG2 Coculture Model.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become the most prevalent liver disease worldwide and is impacted by an unhealthy diet with excessive calories, although the role of sugars in NAFLD etiology remains largely unexplored. Rare sugars are natural sugars with alternative monomers and glycosidic bonds, which have attracted attention as sugar replacers due to developments in enzyme engineering and hence an increased availability. We studied the impact of (rare) sugars on energy production, liver cell physiology and gene expression in human intestinal colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells, hepatoma G2 (HepG2) liver cells and a coculture model with these cells. Fat accumulation was investigated in the presence of an oleic/palmitic acid mixture. Glucose, fructose and galactose, but not mannose, l-arabinose, xylose and ribose enhanced hepatic fat accumulation in a HepG2 monoculture. In the coculture model, there was a non-significant trend (p = 0.08) towards higher (20-55% increased) median fat accumulation with maltose, kojibiose and nigerose. In this coculture model, cellular energy production was increased by glucose, maltose, kojibiose and nigerose, but not by trehalose. Furthermore, glucose, fructose and l-arabinose affected gene expression in a sugar-specific way in coculture HepG2 cells. These findings indicate that sugars provide structure-specific effects on cellular energy production, hepatic fat accumulation and gene expression, suggesting a health potential for trehalose and l-arabinose, as well as a differential impact of sugars beyond the distinction of conventional and rare sugars.

Quercetin Mitigates Endothelial Activation in a Novel Intestinal-Endothelial-Monocyte/Macrophage Coculture Setup.

Atherosclerosis initiation is associated with a pro-inflammatory state of the endothelium. Quercetin is a flavonoid abundantly present in plant-based foods, with a possible impact on cardiovascular health. In this study, the effects of quercetin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated endothelial inflammation and monocyte adhesion and migration, which are initial steps of the atherogenic process, are studied. Novel in vitro multicellular models simulating the intestinal-endothelial-monocytes/macrophages axis allowed to combine relevant intestinal flavonoid absorption, metabolism and efflux, and the consequent bioactivity towards peripheral endothelial cells. In this triple coculture, quercetin exposure decreased monocyte adhesion to and macrophage migration through an LPS-stressed endothelium, and this was associated with significantly lower levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1). Furthermore, quercetin decreased the pro-inflammatory cell environment upon LPS-induced endothelial activation, in terms of tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and sVCAM-1 expression. These findings highlight a mode-of-action by which quercetin may positively impact the initial states of atherosclerosis under more physiologically relevant conditions in terms of quercetin concentrations, metabolites, and intercellular crosstalk.

Sweet Biotechnology: Enzymatic Production and Digestibility Screening of Novel Kojibiose and Nigerose Analogues.

In view of the global pandemic of obesity and related metabolic diseases, there is an increased interest in alternative carbohydrates with promising physiochemical and health-related properties as a potential replacement for traditional sugars. However, our current knowledge is limited to only a small selection of carbohydrates, whereas the majority of alternative rare carbohydrates and especially their properties remain to be investigated. Unraveling their potential properties, like digestibility and glycemic content, could unlock their use in industrial applications. Here, we describe the enzymatic production and in vitro digestibility of three novel glycosides, namely, two kojibiose analogues (i.e., d-Glcp-α-1,2-d-Gal and d-Glcp-α-1,2-d-Rib) and one nigerose analogue (i.e., d-Glcp-α-1,3-l-Ara). These novel sugars were discovered after an intensive acceptor screening with a sucrose phosphorylase originating from Bifidobacterium adolescentis (BaSP). Optimization and upscaling of this process led to roughly 100 g of these disaccharides. Digestibility, absorption, and caloric potential were assessed using brush border enzymes of rat origin and human intestinal Caco-2 cells. The rare disaccharides showed a reduced digestibility and a limited impact on energy metabolism, which was structure-dependent and even more pronounced for the three novel disaccharides in comparison to their respective glucobioses, translating to a low-caloric potential for these novel rare disaccharides.

Bioavailability and Health Impact of Ingested Amyloid-like Protein Fibrils and their Link with Inflammatory Status: A Need for More Research?

The use of amyloid-like protein fibrils (ALFs) in food formulations looks very promising in terms of improving techno-functional properties, but raises some concerns in terms of food safety, because of their structural resemblance to disease-related endogenous amyloids. This review focuses on the biological fate and potential health implications of ingested ALF structures in both healthy and predisposed individuals. A comprehensive overview of ALF gastrointestinal digestion, intestinal absorption, and systemic dissemination is provided, in addition to a thorough assessment of potential ALF cross-seeding of endogenous precursor proteins linked to (non)neurodegenerative amyloidosis. In general, this study concludes that the health impact of ALF consumption remains widely understudied and merits additional research efforts to determine the exact extent to which ALF ingestion may influence the general health status.

Flavonoids and cellular stress: a complex interplay affecting human health.

Flavonoid consumption has beneficial effects on human health, however, clinical evidence remains often inconclusive due to high interindividual variability. Although this high interindividual variability has been consistently observed in flavonoid research, the potential underlying reasons are still poorly studied. Especially the knowledge on the impact of health status on flavonoid responsiveness is limited and merits more investigation. Here, we aim to highlight the bidirectional interplay between flavonoids and cellular stress. First, the state-of-the-art concerning inflammatory stress and mitochondrial dysfunction is reviewed and a comprehensive overview of recent in vitro studies investigating the impact of flavonoids on cellular stress, induced by tumor necrosis factor α, lipopolysaccharide and mitochondrial stressors, is given. Second, we critically discuss the influence of cellular stress on flavonoid uptake, accumulation, metabolism and cell responses, which has, to our knowledge, never been extensively reviewed before. Next, we advocate the innovative insight that stratification of the general population based on health status can reveal subpopulations that benefit more from flavonoid consumption. Finally, suggestions are given for the development of future cell models that simulate the physiological micro-environment, including interindividual variability, since more mechanistic research is needed to establish scientific-based personalized food recommendations for specific subpopulations.

A two-front nutritional environment fuels colorectal cancer: perspectives for dietary intervention.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) develops and progresses in a nutritional environment comprising a continuously changing luminal cocktail of external dietary and microbial factors on the apical side, and a dynamic host-related pool of systemic factors on the serosal side. In this review, we highlight how this two-front environment influences the bioenergetic status of colonocytes throughout CRC development from (cancer) stem cells to cancer cells in nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor conditions, and eventually to metastatic cells, which, upon entry to the circulation and during metastatic seeding, are forced to metabolically adapt. Furthermore, given the influence of diet on the two-front nutritional environment, we discuss dietary strategies that target the specific metabolic preferences of these cells, with a possible impact on colon cancer cell bioenergetics and CRC outcome.

Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Peel and Pulp.

The potential of supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) for the extraction of bioactive compounds from mango by-products was assessed. Carotenoid extraction was optimized using a design of experiments based on temperature (35, 55 and 70 °C), pressure (10 and 35 MPa) and co-solvent addition (0%, 10% and 20% of ethanol or acetone). Moreover, the co-extraction of phenolic acids, flavonoids and xanthonoids was evaluated in a subset of parameters. Finally, a comparison was made between SC-CO2 and a two-step organic solvent extraction of the bioactive compounds from the pulp and peel fractions of two Ecuadorian varieties. The optimal extraction temperature was found to be dependent on the bioactive type, with phenolics requiring higher temperature than carotenoids. The optimal overall conditions, focused on maximal carotenoids recovery, were found to be 55 °C, 35 MPa and 20% of ethanol. The main carotenoid was ß-carotene, while phenolics differed among the varieties. The bioactive content of the peel was up to 4.1-fold higher than in the pulp fraction. Higher antioxidant activity was found in the extracts obtained with organic solvents. SC-CO2 is a promising technology for the isolation of valuable compounds from mango by-products.

Impact of phenolic compound as activators or inhibitors on the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose.

The influence of phenolic compounds on the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose was studied in depth using spectrophotometric techniques, adsorption analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). In this paper for the first time, both possible interactions between phenolic compounds and the enzyme or the substrate were investigated, with the use of various phenolic compounds, cellulase from T. reesei, and Avicel as cellulose source. Three classes of phenolic compounds have been identified, based on their effect on the hydrolysis of cellulose: inhibitors (quercetin, kaempferol, trans-cinnamic acid, luteolin, ellagic acid), non-inhibitors (p-coumaric acid, rutin, caffeic acid), and activators (ferulic acid, syringic acid, sinapic acid, vanillic acid). Secondly, since various structures of phenolic compounds were tested, a structure - action comprehensive correlation was possible leading to the conclusion that an -OCH3 group was necessary for the activating effect. Finally, based on the adsorption spectra and unique SEM images, a different way of adsorption (either on the enzyme or on the substrate) was noticed, depending on the activating or inhibiting action of the phenolic compound.

Intracellular quercetin accumulation and its impact on mitochondrial dysfunction in intestinal Caco-2 cells.

PURPOSE: Flavonoid bioavailability and bioactivity is associated with interindividual variability, which is partially due to differences in health status. Previously, it was demonstrated that cellular stress, especially mitochondrial stress, increases intracellular quercetin uptake and this is associated with beneficial health effects. Here, the impact of quercetin on mitochondrial dysfunction, induced by stressors targeting different sites of the electron transport chain, is investigated. The influence of the mitochondrial stress on quercetin uptake and subcellular location is studied and the accumulated quercetin metabolites in intestinal Caco-2 cells and mitochondria are characterized. PRINCIPAL RESULTS: It was observed that quercetin counteracted (i) the carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (FCCP)-induced decrease in maximum oxygen consumption, (ii) the valinomycin-, oligomycin- and FCCP-induced reactive oxygen species production and (iii) the valinomycin-induced disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential. Using confocal microscopy, it was found that upon mitochondrial stress, the intracellular quercetin accumulation increased and was partially located in the mitochondria. Finally, it was demonstrated that quercetin was present as O-methyl, O-methylglucuronide and O-methylsulfate conjugates in the cell lysate and mitochondria-enriched fraction. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that quercetin can partially restore, especially FCCP-induced, mitochondrial dysfunction and this protective effect was linked with an intracellular quercetin accumulation in the mitochondria of intestinal cells.

Method for beta-carotene extraction from processed baby foods as a model for plant-based fatty food products.

Reliable quantitative determination of carotenoids in complex food matrices such as processed baby food products is challenging because of their incorporation in rigid cellular structures, their sensitivity to oxidation and their lipophilic character. A one-pot liquid-liquid ß-carotene extraction procedure is described for solid baby foods, in the presence of enzymes (Clara-Diastase and Rapidase) facilitating matrix disintegration. The combined extraction and enzymatic dissolution not only protected ß-carotene from oxidation compared to the sequential approach, but also reduced the use of solvents and amount of filtrations steps, favouring a higher recovery. The addition of phenolic antioxidants (BHT, TBHQ and BHA) to calibration solutions and during the procedure at 25 mg/mL resulted in an up to 2.5-fold higher absorbance of ß-carotene solutions which was not observed for trans-ß-apo-8'-carotenal (used as internal standard) solutions. When applying the full procedure on ß-carotene spiked sunflower oil, an apparent recovery of 80% for ß-carotene was obtained. Finally, this protocol was applied to 50 vegetable-based and 22 fruit-based processed baby foods (range 0 to 1179 and 504 µg/100 g, respectively), and it was concluded that this extraction procedure may be used for similar processed foods products. The procedure proved to be sensitive (LOD = 0.12 µg/mL) and reproducible (CV for baby foods: 4-10%).

Valorization of byproducts from tropical fruits: A review, Part 2: Applications, economic, and environmental aspects of biorefinery via supercritical fluid extraction.

The global trade of tropical fruits is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. In 2018, the production was approximately 100 million tones, an increase of 3.3% compared to the previous year. Nevertheless, according to the Food and Agricultural Organization, every year one-third of the food produced in the world for human consumption is lost or wasted. More specifically, around 45% of the fruits, constituted mainly by peels, seeds, and pulps after juice extraction, are discarded mainly in the agricultural and processing steps. Therefore, decreasing and/or using these byproducts, which are often rich in bioactive components, have become an important focus for both the scientific community and the fruit processing industry. In this line, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology is expected to play a significant role in the valorization of these byproducts. This review presents the concepts of a tropical fruit biorefinery using supercritical CO2 extraction and the potential applications of the isolated fractions. There is a specific focus on the extraction of bioactive compounds, that is, carotenoids and phenolics, but also oils and other valuable molecules. Moreover, the techno-economic and environmental performance is assessed. Overall, the biorefinery of tropical fruits via SFE provides new opportunities for development of food and pharmaceutical products with improved economic and environmental performance.

Rare mono- and disaccharides as healthy alternative for traditional sugars and sweeteners?

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are major health problems affecting hundreds of millions of people. Caloric overfeeding with calorie-dense food ingredients like sugars may contribute to these chronic diseases. Sugar research has also identified mechanisms via which conventional sugars like sucrose and fructose can adversely influence metabolic health. To replace these sugars, numerous sugar replacers including artificial sweeteners and sugar alcohols have been developed. Rare sugars became new candidates to replace conventional sugars and their health effects are already reported in individual studies, but overviews and critical appraisals of their health effects are missing. This is the first paper to provide a detailed review of the metabolic health effects of rare sugars as a group. Especially allulose has a wide range of health effects. Tagatose and isomaltulose have several health effects as well, while other rare sugars mainly provide health benefits in mechanistic studies. Hardly any health claims have been approved for rare sugars due to a lack of evidence from human trials. Human trials with direct measures for disease risk factors are needed to allow a final appraisal of promising rare sugars. Mechanistic cell culture studies and animal models are required to enlarge our knowledge on understudied rare sugars.

Valorization of byproducts from tropical fruits: Extraction methodologies, applications, environmental, and economic assessment: A review (Part 1: General overview of the byproducts, traditional biorefinery practices, and possible applications).

Tropical fruits represent one of the most important crops in the world. The continuously growing global market for the main tropical fruits is currently estimated at 84 million tons, of which approximately half is lost or wasted throughout the whole processing chain. Developing novel processes for the conversion of these byproducts into value-added products could provide a viable way to manage this waste problem, aiming at the same time to create a sustainable economic growth within a bio-economy perspective. Given the ever-increasing concern about sustainability, complete valorization through a bio-refinery approach, that is, zero waste concept, as well as the use of green techniques is therefore of utmost importance. This paper aims to report the status on the valorization of tropical fruit byproducts within a bio-refinery frame, via the application of traditional methodologies, and with specific attention to the extraction of phenolics and carotenoids as bioactive compounds. The different types of byproducts, and their content of bioactives is reviewed, with a special emphasis on the lesser-known tropical fruits. Moreover, the bioactivity of the different types of extracts and their possible application as a resource for different sectors (food, pharmaceutical, and environmental sciences) is discussed. Consequently, this review presents the concepts of tropical fruit biorefineries, and the potential applications of the isolated fractions.

Dietary Emulsifiers Alter Composition and Activity of the Human Gut Microbiota in vitro, Irrespective of Chemical or Natural Emulsifier Origin.

The use of additives in food products has become an important public health concern. In recent reports, dietary emulsifiers have been shown to affect the gut microbiota, contributing to a pro-inflammatory phenotype and metabolic syndrome. So far, it is not yet known whether similar microbiome shifts are observable for a more diverse set of emulsifier types and to what extent these effects vary with the unique features of an individual's microbiome. To bridge this gap, we investigated the effect of five dietary emulsifiers on the fecal microbiota from 10 human individuals upon a 48 h exposure. Community structure was assessed with quantitative microbial profiling, functionality was evaluated by measuring fermentation metabolites, and pro-inflammatory properties were assessed with the phylogenetic prediction algorithm PICRUSt, together with a TLR5 reporter cell assay for flagellin. A comparison was made between two mainstream chemical emulsifiers (carboxymethylcellulose and P80), a natural extract (soy lecithin), and biotechnological emulsifiers (sophorolipids and rhamnolipids). While fecal microbiota responded in a donor-dependent manner to the different emulsifiers, profound differences between emulsifiers were observed. Rhamnolipids, sophorolipids, and soy lecithin eliminated 91 ± 0, 89 ± 1, and 87 ± 1% of the viable bacterial population after 48 h, yet they all selectively increased the proportional abundance of putative pathogens. Moreover, profound shifts in butyrate (-96 ± 6, -73 ± 24, and -34 ± 25%) and propionate (+13 ± 24, +88 ± 50, and +29 ± 16%) production were observed for these emulsifiers. Phylogenetic prediction indicated higher motility, which was, however, not confirmed by increased flagellin levels using the TLR5 reporter cell assay. We conclude that dietary emulsifiers can severely impact the gut microbiota, and this seems to be proportional to their emulsifying strength, rather than emulsifier type or origin. As biotechnological emulsifiers were especially more impactful than chemical emulsifiers, caution is warranted when considering them as more natural alternatives for clean label strategies.