The long-term effect of perinatal asphyxia on hippocampal volumes.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) in term-born infants can lead to memory problems. The hippocampus is important for long-term episodic memory. The primary aim was to investigate the effect of HIE on hippocampal volumes in 9- to 10-year-old children. The secondary aim was to investigate the association between hippocampal volumes and previously found impaired memory and cognitive functions in the current cohort. METHODS: In total 26 children with mild HIE, 26 with moderate HIE, and 37 controls were included. The intelligence quotient (IQ) and memory were tested. A 3D-volumetric MRI was obtained. Brain segmentation was performed for hippocampal volumes and intracranial volume. The differences in hippocampal volumes, memory, and IQ between the groups were determined. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed, including hippocampal volume as a percentage of intracranial volume as a dependent variable. RESULTS: Smaller hippocampal volumes were found in moderate HIE (p < 0.001), with a trend toward smaller volumes in mild HIE, compared to controls. In multivariable linear regression analysis, hippocampal volume as a percentage of intracranial volume was significantly associated with long-term visuospatial memory. CONCLUSION: Children with moderate HIE had smaller hippocampal volumes than controls, with a trend toward smaller volumes following mild HIE. Reduced hippocampal volumes were associated with poorer long-term visuospatial memory.

Specific memory impairment following neonatal encephalopathy in term-born children.

UNLABELLED: This study examines short-term memory, verbal working memory, episodic long-term memory, and intelligence in 32 children with mild neonatal encephalopathy (NE), 39 children with moderate NE, 10 children with NE who developed cerebral palsy (CP), and 53 comparison children, at the age of 9 to 10 years. RESULTS: in addition to a global effect on intelligence, NE had a specific effect on verbal working memory, verbal and visuo-spatial long-term memory, and learning, which was associated with degree of NE. Although these memory problems occurred in children without CP, they were more pronounced when children had also developed CP.

Serial MRI and neurodevelopmental outcome in 9- to 10-year-old children with neonatal encephalopathy.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relation between patterns of brain injury on neonatal and childhood magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and long-term neurodevelopmental outcome. STUDY DESIGN: Neonatal (n = 34) and childhood MRIs (n = 77) were analyzed for 80 children with neonatal encephalopathy and for 51 control subjects during childhood. MRIs were graded as normal, mildly abnormal (white matter lesions), or moderately/severely abnormal (watershed injury, lesions in basal ganglia/thalamus or focal infarction). Severity of brain injury was related to different aspects of neurologic outcome: Total impairment score of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, intelligence quotient score, cerebral palsy, postneonatal epilepsy, and need for special education. Seven children with neonatal encephalopathy required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation treatment. RESULTS: Neonatal and childhood MRI were comparable in 25/33 children (75.8%, P < .001). Children with moderate/severe lesions on neonatal or childhood MRI more often had a total impairment score

Behavioral outcome in children with a history of neonatal encephalopathy following perinatal asphyxia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of mild and moderate neonatal encephalopathy (NE) on behavioral functioning, and prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses at 9-10 years. METHODS: The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), Teacher's Report Form (TRF), Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children IV (DISC-IV), and the Children's Social Behavior Questionnaire (CSBQ) were used to assess behavioral outcome of 34 children with mild NE, 47 children with moderate NE, and 53 typically developing controls. RESULTS: Both children with mild and moderate NE showed more problematic behaviors than controls, which are related to a diversity of behavioral domains: elevated rates of social problems, anxiety and depression, attention regulation problems, and thought problems. No group differences were found in percentages of children with a DISC-IV (DSM-IV) classification. CONCLUSIONS: NE has a mildly negative effect on behavioral functioning, but does not lead to elevated levels or specific patterns of developmental psychopathology.

Corpus callosum size in relation to motor performance in 9- to 10-year-old children with neonatal encephalopathy.

Magnetic resonance imaging studies have contributed to recognize the patterns of cerebral injury related to neonatal encephalopathy (NE). We assessed whether a smaller corpus callosum (CC) explained the difference in motor performance between school-age children with NE and controls. Frontal, middle, and posterior areas of the CC were measured in 61 9-10-y-old children with NE and in 47 controls. Motor performance was determined using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC). Linear regression was used to assess whether differences in M-ABC between NE children and controls could be explained by CC size. The CC of 11/30 children with NE type I according to Sarnat (NE I) and 19/36 children with NE type II according to Sarnat (NE II) showed generalized or focal thinning, compared with 8/49 controls. Children with NE II had significantly smaller middle and posterior parts and total areas of the CC. Children with NE scored significantly worse on the M-ABC than controls. The reduction in size of the posterior part of the CC partly explained the mean differences on the M-ABC. Children with NE have poorer motor skills than controls, which is partly explained by a smaller size of the CC.

Long-term cognitive and behavioral consequences of neonatal encephalopathy following perinatal asphyxia: a review.

UNLABELLED: Neonatal encephalopathy (NE) following perinatal asphyxia (PA) is considered an important cause of later neurodevelopmental impairment in infants born at term. This review discusses long-term consequences for general cognitive functioning, educational achievement, neuropsychological functioning and behavior. In all areas reviewed, the outcome of children with mild NE is consistently positive and the outcome of children with severe NE consistently negative. However, children with moderate NE form a more heterogeneous group with respect to outcome. On average, intelligence scores are below those of children with mild NE and age-matched peers, but within the normal range. With respect to educational achievement, difficulties have been found in the domains reading, spelling and arithmetic/mathematics. So far, studies of neuropsychological functioning have yielded ambiguous results in children with moderate NE. A few studies suggest elevated rates of hyperactivity in children with moderate NE and autism in children with moderate and severe NE. CONCLUSION: Behavioral monitoring is required for all children with NE. In addition, systematic, detailed neuropsychological examination is needed especially for children with moderate NE.