Review: The amazing gain-to-feed ratio of newly weaned piglets: sign of efficiency or deficiency?

Shortly after weaning, piglets generally eat dry feed poorly; but nevertheless, a phenomenal gain-to-feed ratio is achieved as they gain about as much weight as they eat (150-200 g/d). The high gain-to-feed ratio, though, cannot be explained by their nutrient intake or nutrient repartitioning. Analyses based on tissue composition and bio-electrical impedance data showed that newly weaned piglets lose fat, maintain protein, and gain large amounts of water because of edema. This edema, which may well contribute up to one kg of BW, seems to be triggered by refeeding syndrome. Refeeding syndrome in adult humans occurs when subjects fast for an extended period of time (weeks) that results in downshifts in metabolic activity and concomitant shedding of phosphate (PO4), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) in urine. If food is abruptly reintroduced, thus, resulting in strong insulin spikes, metabolism is triggered but hampered by a lack of PO4, Mg, K, and thiamine, causing hypophosphatemia, metabolic stress, and edema. In piglets, the same process appears to happen immediately after weaning but in hours rather than weeks, possibly linked to their high metabolic rate. Refeeding syndrome can be lethal in humans but does not appear to be directly lethal in piglets. Our attempts to prevent it through altered diet composition and/or controlled feeding programs have not resulted in better performance at the end of the nursery phase. A practical ramification of weaning-induced edema is that growth and gain-to-feed ratio data immediately after weaning should be interpreted with caution. In addition, diets arguably should be formulated to not strongly trigger insulin release, while high lysine levels are not needed as the gain is not based on protein accretion.

A blend of medium-chain fatty acids, butyrate, organic acids, and a phenolic compound accelerates microbial maturation in newly weaned piglets.

Inclusion of additive blends is a common dietary strategy to manage post-weaning diarrhea and performance in piglets. However, there is limited mechanistic data on how these additives improve outcomes during this period. To evaluate the effects of Presan FX (MCOA) on the intestinal microbiota and metabolome, diets with or without 0.2% MCOA were compared. Pigs fed MCOA showed improved whole-body metabolism 7 days post-weaning, with decreased (P < 0.05) creatine, creatinine and ß-hydroxybutyrate. Alterations in bile-associated metabolites and cholic acid were also observed at the same time-point (P < 0.05), suggesting MCOA increased bile acid production and secretion. Increased cholic acid was accompanied by increased tryptophan metabolites including indole-3-propionic acid (IPA) in systemic circulation (P = 0.004). An accompanying tendency toward increased Lactobacillus sp. in the small intestine was observed (P = 0.05). Many lactobacilli have bile acid tolerance mechanisms and contribute to production of IPA, suggesting increased bile acid production resulted in increased abundance of lactobacilli capable of tryptophan fermentation. Tryptophan metabolism is associated with the mature pig microbiota and many tryptophan metabolites such as IPA are considered beneficial to gut barrier function. In conclusion, MCOA may help maintain tissue metabolism and aid in microbiota re-assembly through bile acid production and secretion.

Is the intestinal mucous layer a natural deep eutectic solvent-based digestion matrix?

In plants, a third solubilization matrix (besides water and lipids) has been proposed, composed of natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs). Such matrices allow for the solubilization of many biologically important molecules, such as starch, which are insoluble in water or lipids. NADES matrices also support enzyme activity, such as amylase, at higher rates than water or lipid-based matrices. We contemplated if a NADES environment could play a role in small intestinal starch digestion. The intestinal mucous layer (encompassing both the glycocalyx and the secreted mucous layer) has a chemical composition that fits well with NADES (e.g., glycoproteins with exposed sugars, amino sugars, and amino acids like proline and threonine, as well as quaternary amines like choline and ethanolamine and organic acids like citric and malic acid). Various studies have indeed shown that amylase binds to glycoproteins within the mucous layer of the small intestine where it performs its digestive action. Dislodging amylase from these binding sites impedes starch digestion and it may well cause digestive health problems as a result. Hence, we propose that the mucous layer in the small intestines harbors digestive enzymes like amylase, while starch, due to solubility, redistributes from the lumen into the mucous layer where it is subsequently digested by amylase. The mucous layer would thus constitute a NADES-based digestion matrix in the intestinal tract.

Supplementing oat hulls to the diet of suckling piglets altered their intestinal tract and colonic microbiota development.

Current study evaluated the effect of a fine and coarsely ground insoluble dietary fibre source on the gastrointestinal development of suckling pigs. Oat hulls (OH) were selected as a model feedstuff, rich in cellulose, lignin, and insoluble dietary fibre. Three experimental supplemental diets were formulated: a finely ground, low fibre and nutrient dense diet served as control (CON). For the 2 high fibre diets, 15% heat-treated starch in CON was exchanged with OH, either finely (OH-f) or coarsely ground (OH-c). Litters of 10 primi- and multiparous sows (mean litter size 14.6 ± 0.84) were used. Within a litter, experimental diets were allotted to triplets of 4 piglets. From approximately 12 d of age, piglets' individual feed intakes were recorded 2 times per day when separated from their dam for 70 min. Piglets could suckle with their dam for the remainder of the day. On d 24 and 25, from the total pool of 120 piglets, seven healthy well-eating piglets per treatment were selected for post-mortem evaluation, resulting in 14 replicates per treatment. Consumption of OH-c and OH-f did not impede clinical health and production performance of piglets. The full stomach weights tended to be greater for OH-c compared to OH-f whereas CON was intermediate (P = 0.083). Supplementing OH significantly increased ileal villus height and caecal dry matter concentration (P < 0.05). For the colon, OH increased its length, contents weight, short-chain fatty acid concentration and reduced total bacterial count as well as γ-proteobacteria count and proportion (P < 0.05). The OH-c treatment specifically increased full gastrointestinal tract weight and caecum contents weight compared to piglets fed CON and OH-f. Furthermore, OH-c reduced colonic crypt depth when compared to OH-f (P = 0.018). In conclusion, supplementing OH to a diet for suckling piglets exerted subtle developmental effects on gastrointestinal morphology and colonic microbial community. These effects were largely independent from the particle size of the OH.

Eat like a Pig to Combat Obesity.

Obesity and related metabolic health issues are a growing human threat, with many theories regarding its causes. In swine, physiologically alike to humans, considerable knowledge on obesity mechanisms has been accumulated. Calorie counting is the basis for managing swine diets and applied with great accuracy. Epigenetic programing predisposes pigs to insulin insensitivity, but pigs seem to sense this insensitivity and consequently eat less, preventing obesity. Pigs naturally prefer to eat small breakfasts and large dinners. Deviating from this eating pattern or providing diets with a high glycemic burden can trigger obesity; however, pigs will restrict food intake to prevent serious obesity. Interestingly, in practice, problems with obesity are rarely seen, even when pigs are fed poorly timed diets similar to junk food, likely because swine diets are balanced for every nutrient. Indeed, feeding pigs diets deficient in micronutrients does trigger obesity. For humans, several micronutrient requirements have not been set officially, and diets optimized for all micronutrients are rarely provided. In conclusion, various obesity triggers are being debated for humans, which have been proven in swine. Obesity problems in pigs are nevertheless less excessive, likely because pigs recognize unhealthy eating practices and consequently reduce food intake to avoid serious complications. Finally, swine diets are normally balanced for all nutrients, which may be an important practice to prevent obesity, from which human health could greatly benefit.

Tocopherol more bioavailable than tocopheryl-acetate as a source of vitamin E for broilers.

Vitamin E is typically supplied in the form of tocopheryl-acetate (T-Ac) since tocopherol (T) has stability issues. Tocopheryl-acetate, however, must be hydrolyzed in the intestines before it can be absorbed, a step that is purportedly rate-limiting for its bioavailability. The objective of this study was to compare the efficiency of absorption of T-Ac and T in broilers. In addition, two test procedures were evaluated in which animals received the test substances for either 2 or 4 days only. Animals were adapted to diets without supplemental vitamin E (feedstuffs contributed 14±1 ppm natural vitamin E (RRR-tocopherol)) till the age of 25 d (individual housing) or 28 d (group housing). Subsequently, they were fed T-Ac at 80, 53, 36, 24, or 16 ppm or T at 80, 40, 20, 10, or 5 ppm for a period of 4 d (4-di) or 2 d (2-dg), after which serum and liver were collected for analysis of vitamin E. Measured feed vitamin E levels were used for the data analysis; the recovery of T-Ac was 85%, and that of T was 39%. Both test procedures (2 or 4 days) yielded good quality data. Based on linear regression analysis, the relative efficiency with which T-Ac raised tissue levels as compared to T was 0.24 (2-dg) to 0.37 (4-di), with liver and serum yielding similar results. Analysis using more complex dose response models imply that the hydrolysis of T-Ac was strongly dose-dependent and that it could be saturated at doses above approximately 50 ppm in animals only briefly fed T-Ac; for T there was no evidence of saturation. These data imply that T, provided that stable forms can be developed, has the potential to be much more efficient at providing vitamin E to the animal, and on top, can yield much higher tissue levels, than T-Ac.

Metabolomic Analysis of Wooden Breast Myopathy Shows a Disturbed Lipid Metabolism.

Myopathies have risen strongly in recent years, likely linked to selection for appetite. For white striping (WS), causes have been identified; but for wooden breast (WB), the cause remains speculative. We used metabolomics to study the breast muscle of 51 birds that were scored for both at 35 days of age to better understand potential causes. A partial least square discriminant analysis revealed that WS and WB had distinct metabolic profiles, implying different etiologies. Arginine and proline metabolism were affected in both, although differently: WB increased arginine in breast muscle implying that the birds did not use this pathway to increase tissue blood flow. Antioxidant defenses were impeded as shown by low anserine and beta-alanine. In contrast, GSH and selenium concentrations were increased. Serine, linked to anti-inflammatory properties, was increased. Taurine, which can stabilize the cell's sarcolemma as well as modulate potassium channels and cellular calcium homeostasis, was also increased. Mineral data and depressed phosphatidylethanolamine, cAMP, and creatine-phosphate suggested compromised energy metabolism. WB also had drastically lower diet-derived lipids, suggesting compromised lipid digestion. In conclusion, WB may be caused by impaired lipid digestion triggered by a very high appetite: the ensuing deficiencies may well impair blood flow into muscle resulting in irreparable damage.

Fibre supplementation to pre-weaning piglet diets did not improve the resilience towards a post-weaning enterotoxigenic E. coli challenge.

Dietary fibre (DF) is implicated in gastrointestinal health of weaned piglets, either through its physiochemical properties, through modulation of gut microbiota and (or) improved gut integrity. We aimed to study the effect of DF enriched supplemental diets fed to suckling piglets ('creep feed') on health and performance after weaning when challenged with an enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC). Seventy-two piglets originating from 28 litters had been fed four creep diets, that is a low-fibre control (CON); a diet containing 2% long-chain arabinoxylans from wheat (lc-AXOS) or 5% purified cellulose (CELL) or a diet containing the high fermentable and the low-fermentable fibre source (i.e. 2% lc-AXOS and 5% CELL). Upon weaning, piglets were individually housed and all fed the same diet. On days 7, 8 and 9, animals received an oral dose of ETEC (5 ml containing 107 to 108  CFU/ml). Besides growth performance, faecal and skin scores were recorded daily. Gut permeability was assessed by urinary excretion of Co-EDTA prior and post-ETEC challenge. Repeated measures in time were statistically evaluated with generalized linear mixed models. We used a binominal distribution for evaluating the faecal and skin scores. Feed intake and body weight gain did not differ between treatments (p > .05). Piglets on CELL decreased gain:feed ratio in week 2 + 3 week compared to CON (p = .035). Prior to ETEC challenge, gut permeability tended to increase for lc-AXOS (p = .092). Moreover, lc-AXOS as main effect increased intestinal permeability before ETEC challenge (p = .013), whereas the low-fermentable fibre lead to elevated intestinal permeability after ETEC challenge (p = .014). The incidence of diarrhoea was higher for lc-AXOS + CELL compared with lc-AXOS (p = .036), while skin condition was unaffected. In conclusion, neither the high fermentable nor the low-fermentable fibre source improved post-weaning growth or gastrointestinal health of the piglets.

SARS-CoV-2: influence of phosphate and magnesium, moderated by vitamin D, on energy (ATP) metabolism and on severity of COVID-19.

The use of vitamin D to reduce the severity of COVID-19 complications is receiving considerable attention, backed by encouraging data. Its purported mode of action is as an immune modulator. Vitamin D, however, also affects the metabolism of phosphate and Mg, which may well play a critical role in SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. SARS-CoV-2 may induce a cytokine storm that drains ATP whose regeneration requires phosphate and Mg. These minerals, however, are often deficient in conditions that predispose people to severe COVID-19, including older age (especially males), diabetes, obesity, and usage of diuretics. Symptoms observed in severe COVID-19 also fit well with those seen in classical hypophosphatemia and hypomagnesemia, such as thrombocytopenia, coagulopathy, dysfunction of liver and kidneys, neurologic disturbances, immunodeficiency, failure of heart and lungs, delayed weaning from a respirator, cardiac arrhythmia, seizures, and, finally, multiorgan failure. Deficiencies of phosphate and Mg can be amplified by kidney problems commonly observed in patients with COVID-19 resulting in their wastage into urine. Available data show that phosphate and Mg are deficient in COVID-19, with phosphate showing a remarkable correlation with its severity. In one experiment, patients with COVID-19 were supplemented with a cocktail of vitamin D3, Mg, and vitamin B12, with very encouraging results. We, thus, argue that patients with COVID-19 should be monitored and treated for phosphate and Mg deficiencies, ideally already in the early phases of infection. Supplementation of phosphate and Mg combined with vitamin D could also be implemented as a preventative strategy in populations at risk.

Circadian misalignment imposed by nocturnal feeding tends to increase fat deposition in pigs.

Misalignment of day/night and feeding rhythms has been shown to increase fat deposition and the risk for metabolic disorders in humans and rodents. In most studies, however, food intake and intake patterns are not controlled. We studied the effects of circadian misalignment on energy expenditure in pigs while controlling for food intake as well as intake patterns. Twelve groups of five male pigs were housed in respiration chambers and fed either during the day (10.00-18.00 hours; DF) or night (22.00-06.00 hours; NF), bihourly the same sequential meals, representing 15, 10, 25, 30 and 20 % of the daily allowance. Paired feeding was applied to ensure equal gross energy intake between treatments. Apparent total tract digestibility, energy balances and heat partitioning were measured and analysed using a mixed linear model. Apparent total tract energy and DM digestibility tended to be lower for NF-pigs than DF-pigs (P < 0·10). Heat production was 3 % lower for NF-pigs than DF-pigs (P < 0·026), increasing fat retention by 7 % in NF-pigs (P = 0·050). NF-pigs were less active than DF-pigs during the feeding period, but more active during the fasting period. RMR was greater for DF-pigs than NF-pigs during the fasting period. Methane production was 30 % greater in NF-pigs than DF-pigs (P < 0·001). In conclusion, circadian misalignment has little effect on nutrient digestion, but alters nutrient partitioning, ultimately increasing fat deposition. The causality of the association between circadian misalignment and methane production rates remains to be investigated.

Nutrient digestibility of soybean products in grower-finisher pigs1.

Solvent extraction of soybean creates soybean meal (SBM), but an array of other soybean products can be created using further processing of SBM or soybean. For accurate inclusion of these products in pig feed, characterization of digestible AA profile and energy value is required. Soybean products from processes such as extrusion (EX) of soybean and thermo-mechanical (TM) treatment, bioconversion using fermentation or enzymes (BC), and ethanol-water extraction (EW) of soybean meal were collected together with SBM. These 9 soybean products were tested in cornstarch-based diets together with an N-free diet for a total of 10 diets. Ten ileal-cannulated barrows (30.4 ± 0.7 kg initial BW) were fed 10 diets at 2.8 times maintenance DE for six 9-d periods with a 6 (periods) × 10 (pigs) Youden square. The control SBM contained 47.0% CP, 1.4% ether extract, and ADF 6.0%. The 9 soybean products contained 35.6% to 66.4% CP, 0.9% to 21.6% ether extract, and 4.4% to 8.0% ADF. The EW soybean products were high in CP (>61%), whereas the 2 EX soybean products were low in CP (<36%) but high in ether extract (≥19%). Chemically available Lys ranged from 92.6% to 100% of total Lys, indicating that minor Lys damage occurred during processing. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy was lower (P < 0.05) for soybean products with greater ether extract and ADF content than SBM, and varied among soybean products. The standardized ileal digestibility (SID) did not differ (P > 0.05) among soybean products for most AA, except for lower SID of Arg, Ile, Leu, Lys, Phe, and Tyr (P < 0.05) for EX2 and BC1 than other soybean products. The DE and predicted NE value did not differ (P > 0.05) among soybean products. The greater SID AA content (P < 0.05) in EW, BC, and TM1 soybean products than SBM was mainly a result of greater total AA content due to removal of other macronutrients. In conclusion, extrusion of soybean creates soybean products with a greater energy value but lower ATTD of energy and lower SID AA content than SBM. Further processing of SBM creates soybean products with greater CP and SID AA content but similar SID of AA than SBM. Thus, new technologies to process SBM or soybean create high-value ingredients to be included in pig diets, especially for young pigs with high nutritional requirements.

Effects of a feed additive blend on broilers challenged with heat stress.

We evaluated a blend of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), organic acids, and a polyphenol antioxidant on gut integrity. Eighty Ross Broilers were exposed to 20-22°C (control - normothermic) or to 35-39.5°C (heat stress) for eight hours a day for a period of 1 or 5 days. Birds were fed a standard diet, or a diet supplemented with the test blend. Thereafter, birds were euthanized, and intestinal sections were excised for morphological, morphometric and gene expression analyses. Blood samples were collected for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity and trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) determination. Heart and liver tissues were used to quantify the expression of heat shock proteins 60 and 70 (HSP60 and HSP70, respectively) and inhibitor of kappa light chain gene enhancer in B cells alpha (IKBA). The jejunum was the most sensitive intestinal section, where heat stress modulated the expression of HSP70, of the inflammatory markers IKBA, interleukin 8 (IL-8), interferon gamma (IFNγ), and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Moreover, expression of tight junctions (CLDN1, ZO1 and ZO2) and nutrient transporters (PEPT1 and EAAT3) was modulated especially in the jejunum. In conclusion, the feed additive blend protected intestines during heat stress from the decrease in villus height and crypt depth, and from the increase in villus width. Especially in the jejunum, heat stress played an important role by modulating oxidative stress and inflammation, impairing gut integrity and nutrient transport, and such deleterious effects were alleviated by the feed additive blend. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Jejunum is the most sensitive intestinal segment during heat stress. Heat stress affects the expression of tight junctions and nutrient transporters. Feed management helps to alleviate the disturbances caused by heat stress. A blend of MCFA, organic acids and a polyphenol protects broilers under heat stress.

Pigs Ferment Enzymatically Digestible Starch when it Is Substituted for Resistant Starch.

BACKGROUND: Feeding behavior is controlled by satiety mechanisms, which are affected by the extent of starch digestion, and thus resistant starch (RS) intake. Alterations in feeding behavior to changes in RS intake may depend on the adaptation of processes involved when shifting from starch digestion to fermentation or vice versa. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate how growing pigs adapt their feeding behavior in response to increasing and decreasing dietary RS concentrations. METHODS: Thirty-six groups of 6 pigs (25.4 ± 2.8 kg; Hypor Libra × Hypor Maxter; male:female, 1:1) were fed diets containing 50% high-amylose maize starch (high RS; HRS) or waxy maize starch (low RS; LRS). Over 28 d, diets were exchanged following a 5-step titration (25% per step) that was executed in the upward (LH) or downward direction (HL). Twelve groups received a control diet to correct for changes over time. Individual feeding behavior and total tract starch digestion and fermentation were evaluated. The response in each parameter to increasing dietary HRS inclusion was estimated through the use of linear regression procedures, and tested for titration direction and sex effects. RESULTS: Complete substitution of LRS with HRS increased the proportion of starch fermented, which was greater in LH pigs than in HL pigs (17.6% compared with 8.18%; P < 0.001), and decreased the feed intake (106 g/d; P = 0.021) and meal size (12.6 g; P < 0.001) of LH pigs, but not of HL pigs. In LH pigs, the size of the starch fermentation response positively correlated with the size of the feed intake response (r = 0.90, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The attenuated response in starch fermentation in HL pigs indicates that pigs adapt more slowly to dietary supply of digestible starch than to RS, consequently resulting in fermentation of enzymatically digestible starch. Feed intake and feeding behavior only changed in pigs poorly adapting to RS, indicating that adequacy of adaptation, rather than RS itself, drives feed intake. These findings stress the importance of diet history for nutrient digestion and feeding behavior.

Reduced Feed Intake, Rather than Increased Energy Losses, Explains Variation in Growth Rates of Normal-Birth-Weight Piglets.

Background: Substantial variation in growth rates exists in normal-birth-weight piglets, possibly due to differences in energy efficiency. Within this population, slow growth rates are associated with reduced insulin sensitivity. Slowly digestible starch (SDS) may improve growth efficiency in slowly growing pigs, because it reduces postprandial blood glucose. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate maintenance energy requirements and efficiency of energy used for growth (incremental energy efficiency) of slow-growing or fast-growing piglets (SG-pigs and FG-pigs, respectively) with equal birth weight that were fed either an SDS or a rapidly digestible-starch (RDS) diet. Methods: Sixteen groups of either five 10-wk-old SG-pigs (mean ± SD: 11.3 ± 1.4 kg) or FG-pigs (15.1 ± 1.7 kg) were housed in climate respiration chambers and fed diets containing 40% RDS or SDS for 2 wk. In week 1, feed was available ad libitum. In week 2, feed supply was restricted to 65% of the observed weekly averaged feed intake [kJ · kg body weight (BW)-0.6 · d-1] in week 1. After week 2, pigs were feed deprived for 24 h, after which heat production was determined. Energy balances, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), and incremental energy efficiencies were calculated and analyzed using a general linear model. Results: Gross energy intake (kJ · kg BW-0.6 · d-1) was 4% greater (P = 0.047) for FG-pigs than for SG-pigs. ATTD of fat was 6%-units greater (P = 0.003) for RDS-fed than for SDS-fed pigs. Fasting heat production and incremental energy efficiencies did not differ between pig types or diets. Incremental use of metabolizable energy for fat retention was 2% units (P = 0.054) greater for RDS-fed than SDS-fed pigs. Conclusions: A lower energy intake rather than greater maintenance requirements or lower energy efficiency explains the slow growth of SG-pigs. Incremental RDS intake increased fat deposition more than SDS, whereas energy efficiency was not affected. Thus, feeding SDS instead of RDS does not improve growth efficiency but may result in slightly leaner pigs.

Unraveling the cause of white striping in broilers using metabolomics.

White striping (WS) is a major problem affecting the broiler industry. Fillets affected by this myopathy present pathologies that compromise the quality of the meat, and most importantly, make the fillets more prone to rejection by the consumer. The exact etiology is still unknown, which is why a metabolomics analysis was performed on breast samples of broilers. The overall objective was to identify biological pathways involved in the pathogenesis of WS. The analysis was performed on a total of 51 muscle samples and distinction was made between normal (n = 19), moderately affected (n = 24) and severely affected (n = 8) breast fillets. Samples were analyzed using gas chromatographic mass spectral analysis and liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Data were subsequently standardized, normalized and analyzed using various multivariate statistical procedures. Metabolomics allowed for the identification of several pathways that were altered in white striped breast fillets. The tricarboxylic acid cycle exhibited opposing directionalities. This is described in literature as the backflux and enables the TCA cycle to produce high-energy phosphates through matrix-level phosphorylation and, therefore, produce energy under conditions of hypoxia. Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation was limited due to disturbances in especially cis-5-14:1 carnitine (log2 FC of 2, P < 0.01). Because of this, accumulation of harmful fatty acids took place, especially long-chain ones, which damages cell structures. Conversion of arginine to citrulline increased presumably to produce nitric oxide, which enhances blood flow under conditions of hypoxia. Nitric oxide however also increases oxidative damage. Increases in taurine (log2 FC of 1.2, P < 0.05) suggests stabilization of the sarcolemma under hypoxic conditions. Lastly, organic osmolytes (sorbitol, taurine, and alanine) increased (P < 0.05) in severely affected birds; likely this disrupts cell volume maintenance. Based on the results of this study, hypoxia was the most likely cause/initiator of WS in broilers. We speculate that birds suffering from WS have a vascular support system in muscle that is borderline adequate to support growth, but triggers like activity results in local hypoxia that damages tissue.

Water-soluble all-rac α-tocopheryl-phosphate and fat-soluble all-rac α-tocopheryl-acetate are comparable vitamin E sources for swine.

Vitamin E, as all-rac α-tocopheryl-acetate (TAc), has a bioavailability of only 5.4% in swine and, therefore, is a poor vitamin E source. Tocopheryl-phosphate (TP) has been used successfully as a vitamin E source around 1940 but it was subsequently replaced by TAc as it was easier to manufacture. Recently, it has been proposed as an in vivo intermediate in vitamin E metabolism with possibly gene-regulatory functions. TP may be more bioavailable than TAc as intestinal hydrolysis and emulsification are not required. The objective of this work was to compare the bioavailability of TAc and TP in swine. Piglets (18.6 ± 0.6 kg) fitted with jugular catheters received a single test meal (350 g) containing either deuterated (trimethyl-d9) TAc or TP (75 IU/kg body weight, n = 8 per treatment). Twelve serial blood samples were obtained starting premeal until 78 h postmeal for analysis of deuterated T and TP using LC MS/MS. Results were standardized by dividing them by the dose per kg body weight and were subsequently modeled with a multicompartment model. T from TAc had a slow appearance rate (0.040 ± 0.014 h-1) and rapid disappearance rate (0.438 ± 0.160 h-1) with a plateau value of 0.414 ± 0.129 µM/(µmol/kg BW). TP appeared faster in plasma (0.119 ± 0.058 h-1, P = 0.01) while the elimination rate was similar (0.396 ± 0.098 h-1, P = 0.51). The plateau value of TP was only numerically higher (0.758 ± 0.778 µM/(µmol/kg BW), P = 0.34). TP was quickly converted to T; its appearance rate was 0.026 ± 0.009 h-1, slower than the appearance rate of T from TAc (P = 0.01), whereas the elimination rate was 0.220 ± 0.062 h-1, slower than that of T from TAc (P = 0.00). The conversion of TP to T may have been incomplete, as its plateau value was only 0.315 ± 0.109 µM/(µmol/kg BW). The area under the curve, expressed relative to area under the curve for T from TAc, was 34.5% for TP and 107.3% for T from TP. These data confirm that TP is more quickly absorbed than T from TAc. TP is also converted to T and thus a functional precursor of T. Nevertheless, as a source of T, TP failed to offer a clear advantage over TAc in bioavailability.

The Course of Parturition Affects Piglet Condition at Birth and Survival and Growth through the Nursery Phase.

The aim of this study was to relate the course of parturition to the condition of piglets at birth, based on umbilical cord blood acid-base values, and relate the condition at birth to neonatal survival and performance up to 10 weeks of life. Data were collected from 37 spontaneous unassisted parturitions, and neonatal performance was based on observations of 516 piglets. Stillbirth rate increased from 2% in the first piglets, to 17% in piglets born 13th in the litter or later. This was aggravated in sows with longer than average stage II of parturition. Umbilical cord blood values also reflected the effect of birth order, with pH decreasing and lactate increasing in the course of parturition. Interestingly, sows that had a long expulsion stage of parturition also took longer to give birth to the first four piglets (r = 0.74), suggesting that sows with complicated parturition were already experiencing problems at the start of expulsion of piglets. Piglets with signs of asphyxia, based on umbilical blood lactate higher than 4.46 mmol/L, were slower to start suckling, had a higher risk of neonatal mortality, and had a slower growth rate over the first 10 weeks of life.

High Amylose Starch with Low In Vitro Digestibility Stimulates Hindgut Fermentation and Has a Bifidogenic Effect in Weaned Pigs.

BACKGROUND: Dietary amylose resists enzymatic digestion, thereby providing a substrate for microbial fermentation that stimulates proliferation of beneficial microbiota and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the large intestine of pigs and humans. However, the effect of increasing dietary amylose in pigs immediately postweaning on growth, nutrient digestibility and flow, and intestinal microbial and SCFA profiles has not been studied and can be used as a model for newly weaned human infants. OBJECTIVE: We studied the effects of increasing dietary amylose on growth, nutrient digestibility, and intestinal microbial and metabolite profiles in weaned pigs. METHODS: Weaned pigs (n = 32) were randomly allocated to 1 of 4 diets containing 67% starch with 0%, 20%, 28%, or 63% amylose for 21 d. Subsequently, pigs were killed to collect feces and digesta for measuring starch digestion and microbial and metabolite profiles. RESULTS: Feeding weaned pigs 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose decreased (P < 0.05) feed intake by 5% and growth by ≥ 12%. Ileal digestibility of dry matter decreased (P < 0.05) by 10% and starch by 9%, thereby increasing (P < 0.05) hindgut fermentation, cecal and colonic total SCFAs, and colonic Bacteroides, and lowering (P < 0.01) ileal, cecal, and colonic pH in pigs consuming 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose. Cecal and colonic Bifidobacteria spp. increased by 14-30% (P < 0.05) and Clostridium clusters IV and XIVa were decreased (P < 0.01) in pigs consuming 63% compared with 0%, 20%, and 28% amylose. CONCLUSION: Increasing dietary amylose in pigs immediately postweaning stimulated hindgut fermentation and Bifidobacteria spp., thereby manipulating the gut environment, but also reduced intake and growth. An optimum dietary amylose concentration should be determined, which would maintain desired growth rate and gut environment in weaned pigs.

Starch with high amylose content and low in vitro digestibility increases intestinal nutrient flow and microbial fermentation and selectively promotes bifidobacteria in pigs.

Diets containing different starch types can affect enzymatic digestion of starch and thereby starch availability for microbial fermentation in the gut. However, the role of starch chemistry in nutrient digestion and flow and microbial profile has been poorly explained. Eight ileal-cannulated pigs (29.4 ± 0.9 kg body weight) were fed 4 diets containing 70% purified starch (amylose content, <5, 20, 28, and 63%; reflected by in vitro maximal digestion rate; 1.06, 0.73, 0.38, and 0.22%/min, respectively) in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square. Ileal and fecal starch output, postileal crude protein yield, fecal total SCFA and total butyrate content, and gene copies of Bifidobacterium spp. in feces were higher (P < 0.05) when pigs consumed the slowly digestible starch diet than the remaining 3 starch diets. The in vitro starch digestion rate had a negative, nonlinear relationship with ileal starch flow (R(2) = 0.98; P < 0.001). Ileal starch flow was positively related to Bifidobacterium spp. (R(2) = 0.27; P < 0.01), Lactobacillus group (R(2) = 0.22; P < 0.01), and total butyrate content (R(2) = 0.46; P < 0.01) but was not related to Enterobacteriaceae (R(2) < 0.00; P = 0.92). In conclusion, starch with high amylose content and low in vitro digestibility increased postileal nutrient flow and microbial fermentation and selectively promoted Bifidobacterium spp. in the distal gut.