Emerging incidence trends of eosinophilic esophagitis over 25 years: Results of a nationwide register-based pathology cohort.

RATIONALE: Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) has emerged from a case-reportable illness in the early 1990s to a distinct clinicopathological entity. Increasing worldwide incidences have been observed, although due to various study designs estimates are inconsistent. AIM: To determine population-based annual incidence rates over a time period of 25 years. METHODS: A nationwide register-based pathology (PALGA) search was performed to identify reports describing esophageal eosinophilia between 1995 and 2019. EoE was identified if the diagnosis was confirmed by the pathologist. Crude incidence rates were estimated by the number of new EoE cases per year and matched with population data. RESULTS: Between 1995 and 2019, 7361 unique patients' reports mentioned esophageal eosinophilia, of these 4061 were classified as EoE (71% male, mean age 37.9 ± 18.4 years). In total, 639 (16%) children (<18 years) were diagnosed. The EoE incidence increased from 0.01 in 1995 (95% CI: 0.0 - 0.04) to 3.16 (95% CI: 2.90 - 3.44) per 100.000 inhabitants in 2019. EoE was significantly more prevalent in males (OR 2.48 | 95% CI: 2.32 - 2.65; vs. females p < 0.001) and adults (OR 1.42 | 95% CI: 1.31 - 1.55; vs. children p < 0.001). Highest incidences were observed in 2019, being 4.37 (95% CI: 3.94 - 4.84) vs. 1.97 (95% CI: 1.68 - 2.29) per 100.000 males and females, respectively (p < 0.001). No seasonal variation was observed. CONCLUSION: Over the past quarter century, the annual rates of newly diagnosed EoE patients raised dramatically and this increase has not reached a deceleration yet.

The Habitual Diet of Dutch Adult Patients with Eosinophilic Esophagitis Has Pro-Inflammatory Properties and Low Diet Quality Scores.

We determined the nutritional adequacy and overall quality of the diets of adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). Dietary intakes stratified by sex and age were compared to Dietary Reference Values (DRV). Overall diet quality was assessed by two independent Diet-Quality-Indices scores, the PANDiet and DHD-index, and compared to age- and gender-matched subjects from the general population. Lastly, food and nutrient intakes of EoE patients were compared to intakes of the general population. Saturated fat intake was significantly higher and dietary fiber intake significantly lower than the DRV in both males and females. In males, the DRV were not reached for potassium, magnesium, selenium, and vitamins A and D. In females, the DRV were not reached for iron, sodium, potassium, selenium, and vitamins A, B2, C and D. EoE patients had a significantly lower PANDiet and DHD-index compared to the general population, although the relative intake (per 1000 kcal) of vegetables/fruits/olives was significantly higher (yet still up to 65% below the recommended daily amounts) and alcohol intake was significantly lower compared to the general Dutch population. In conclusion, the composition of the habitual diet of adult EoE patients has several pro-inflammatory and thus unfavorable immunomodulatory properties, just as the general Dutch population, and EoE patients had lower overall diet quality scores than the general population. Due to the observational character of this study, further research is needed to explore whether this contributes to the development and progression of EoE.

Heterogeneity in Clinical, Endoscopic, and Histologic Outcome Measures and Placebo Response Rates in Clinical Trials of Eosinophilic Esophagitis: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Agents are being developed for treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). However, it is not clear what outcome measures would best determine the efficacy and safety of these agents in clinical trials. We performed a systematic review of outcomes used in randomized placebo-controlled trials of EoE and we estimate the placebo response and rates of remission. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the EU Clinical Trials Register from inception through February 20, 2018 for randomized controlled trials of pharmacologic therapies for EoE. Efficacy outcome definitions, measurement tools, and the proportion of patients responding to placebo were collected and stratified by based on histologic, endoscopic, and patient-reported outcomes. RESULTS: We analyzed data from 22 placebo-controlled trials, comprising 1112 patients with EoE. Ten additional active registered trials were identified. Most published trials evaluated topical corticosteroid therapy (13/22, 59.1%). Histologic outcomes measuring eosinophil density and patient-reported outcomes were reported in 21/22 published trials (95.5%). No consistently applied definitions of histologic or patient-reported response or remission were identified. Endoscopic outcomes were described in 60% (12/20) of published trials. The EoE Endoscopic Reference Score is the most commonly applied tool for describing changes in endoscopic appearance. The median histologic response to placebo was 3.7% (range, 0%-31.6%) and the median rate of remission in patients given placebo was 0.0% (range, 0%-11.0%). The median patient-reported response to placebo was 14.4% (range, 8.6%-77.8%) and rate of remission in patients given placebo was 26.2% (range, 13.2%-35.7%). CONCLUSIONS: In a systematic review of the literature, we found that no standardized definitions of histologic, endoscopic, or patient-reported outcomes are used to determine whether pharmacologic agents produce a response or remission in patients with EoE. A core outcome set is needed to reduce heterogeneity in outcome reporting and facilitate trial interpretation and comparison of results from trials.

Management of Eosinophilic Esophagitis Based on Pathophysiological Evidence.

Over the past decades eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) has been increasingly diagnosed, and significant progress has been made in our understanding of its pathophysiology. As EoE cannot be cured yet, treatment goals are suppression of disease activity and symptoms as well as the prevention of progression to a more severe disease phenotype. Disease-modifying treatment options can be divided into dietary therapy and immunosuppressive medications, of which topical steroids have been most investigated, yet are still prescribed off-label. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in our understanding of EoE and discuss the mechanisms of action of current treatment options, with emphasis on the role of the esophageal epithelial barrier and the effects of proton-pump inhibitors in the management of patients with EoE.

Disease activity in eosinophilic esophagitis is associated with impaired esophageal barrier integrity.

In eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE), the esophageal barrier integrity is impaired. Integrity can be assessed with different techniques. To assess the correlations between esophageal eosinophilia and various measures of mucosal integrity and to evaluate whether endoscopic impedance measurements can predict disease activity, endoscopies and mucosal integrity measurements were performed in adult EoE patients with active disease (≥15 eosinophils/high-power field) at baseline (n = 32) and after fluticasone (n = 15) and elemental dietary treatment (n = 14) and in controls (n = 19). Mucosal integrity was evaluated during endoscopy using electrical tissue spectroscopy (ETIS) measuring mucosal impedance and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and transepithelial molecule-flux through biopsy specimens in Ussing chambers. We included 61 measurements; 32 of patients at baseline and 29 after treatment, 3 patients dropped out. After treatment, 20 patients were in remission (≤15 eosinophils/high-power field) and these measurements were compared with 41 measurements of patients with active disease (at baseline or after failed treatment). All four mucosal integrity measures showed significant impairment in active EoE compared with remission. Eosinophilia was negatively correlated with ETIS and TER and positively with transepithelial molecule flux (P ≤ 0.001). The optimal ETIS cutoff to predict disease activity was 6,000 Ω·m with a sensitivity of 79% [95% confidence interval (CI) 54-94%], specificity of 84% (95% CI 69-94%), positive predictive values of 89% (95% CI 77-95%) and negative predictive values of 71% (95% CI 54-84%). In EoE patients, markers of mucosal integrity correlate with esophageal eosinophilia. Additionally, endoscopic mucosal impedance measurements can predict disease activity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE), the mucosal integrity, measured by making use of four different parameters, correlates strongly with esophageal eosinophilia. The accuracy of endoscopically measured mucosal impedance to distinguish active disease from remission was acceptable with moderate specificity and sensitivity. Mucosal impedance measurements can predict disease activity in adult EoE patients.

Esophageal and Small Intestinal Mucosal Integrity in Eosinophilic Esophagitis and Response to an Elemental Diet.

OBJECTIVES: The esophageal mucosal integrity is impaired in eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) and it has been suggested that the duodenal permeability is increased. The absence of food allergens may restore the integrity. The aims of this study were to assess duodenal permeability in EoE and to evaluate the effect of an elemental diet on the esophageal and duodenal integrity. METHODS: In this prospective study 17 adult EoE patients and 8 healthy controls (HC) were included. Esophageal biopsy specimens were sampled before and after 4 weeks of elemental diet to measure eosinophil counts and gene expression of tight junction and barrier integrity proteins. Esophageal and duodenal impedance were measured by electrical tissue impedance spectroscopy and Ussing chambers were used to measure transepithelial resistance (TER) and transepithelial molecule flux. Small intestinal permeability was measured using a test, measuring lactulose/mannitol (L/M) ratios. RESULTS: In EoE patients, the esophageal but not the duodenal integrity was impaired, compared with HC. We observed no significant difference between L/M ratios of HC and EoE patients. After diet, eosinophil counts decreased significantly, which was paralleled by normalization of esophageal impedance and transepithelial molecule flux. The esophageal TER improved significantly, but did not reach values seen in HC. Esophageal expression of genes encoding for barrier integrity proteins filaggrin and desmoglein-1 was impaired at baseline and restored after diet. CONCLUSIONS: An elemental diet restores esophageal integrity, suggesting that it is at least partly secondary to allergen exposure. Duodenal integrity seems not to be affected in EoE, and possibly plays a minor role in its pathophysiology.

Burden of disease and increasing prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in a population-based cohort in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: Reported epidemiology and phenotype distributions vary widely and disease burden of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is poorly described. Our aim was to establish these features in a population-based cohort covering 319 976 inhabitants. Furthermore, differences between tertiary referral and peripheral hospital patients were quantified. METHODS: IBD patients in the adherence area of three peripheral hospitals (2004-2012) were included. Medical and surgical treatment data were obtained. Quality of life and disease activity were evaluated. An outpatient cohort from a tertiary referral centre was accrued. RESULTS: A total of 1461 patients were included: 761 (52.1%) with ulcerative colitis (UC), 579 (39.5%) with Crohn's disease (CD) and 121 (8.3%) with IBD-unspecified. Point prevalence of IBD was 432.1 per 100 000 inhabitants in 2010, which increased significantly over time, P-value of less than 0.0001. The mean annual incidence was 17.2 for UC, 10.5 for CD and 2.2 for IBD-unspecified. Tertiary referral Crohn's patients used thiopurines and biological therapy and underwent surgery significantly more often than patients in peripheral hospitals (P<0.0001). Disease activity correlated negatively with quality of life (P<0.0001) in UC and CD. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of IBD is still increasing. Burden of disease was significantly more severe, mainly in Crohn's patients, in the referral centre, highlighting the importance of population-based studies to accurately describe phenotype distribution and disease burden.

Interactions between gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and eosinophilic oesophagitis.

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is the most common oesophageal disorder, whereas eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE) is an emerging disease unresponsive to PPI therapy. Updated guidelines in 2011 described proton pump inhibitor-responsive esophageal eosinophilia (PPI-REE), a novel phenotype in EoE patients who were responsive to PPIs. This article aims to update the complex interplay between GORD, EoE and PPIs. Oesophageal mucosal integrity is diffusely impaired in EoE and PPI-REE patients. PPI-REE might occur with either normal or pathological pH monitoring. The genetic hallmark of EoE is overlapped in PPI-REE, but not in GORD. PPIs can partially restore epithelial integrity and reverse allergic inflammation gene expression in PPI-REE. Acid hypersensitivity in EoE patients may explain symptomatic but not histological response on PPIs. Unsolved issues with PPI-REE are whether oesophageal barrier impairment is the cause or the effect of oesophageal eosinophilia and whether PPIs primarily targets barrier integrity or oesophageal inflammation.

Long-Term Loss of Response in Proton Pump Inhibitor-Responsive Esophageal Eosinophilia Is Uncommon and Influenced by CYP2C19 Genotype and Rhinoconjunctivitis.

OBJECTIVES: Proton pump inhibitor-responsive esophageal eosinophilia (PPI-REE) is diagnosed in at least one-third of patients with suspected eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). We aimed to evaluate the durability and factors influencing long-term efficacy of PPI therapy. METHODS: Retrospective multicenter cohort study of patients with PPI-REE who had at least 12 months of follow-up. PPI therapy was tapered to the lowest dose, which maintained clinical remission. Primary outcomes were the proportion of patients with loss of histological response (<15 eos/HPF) and predictors of loss of response. CYP2C19 polymorphisms were determined from blood samples in a subset of patients. RESULTS: Seventy-five PPI-REE patients were included (mean follow-up 26 months (12-85)), of whom fifty-five (73%) had sustained histological remission on low-dose PPI therapy. Loss of response was significantly higher in those patients with a CYP2C19 rapid metabolizer genotype (36% vs. 6%, P = 0.01) and with rhinoconjunctivitis (40% vs. 13%, P = 0.007). On the multivariate analysis, a CYP2C19 rapid metabolizer genotype (odds ratio (OR) 12.5; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-115.9) and rhinoconjunctivitis (OR 8.6; 95% CI: 1.5-48.7) were independent predictors of loss of response. Among relapsing patients, eosinophilia was limited to the distal esophagus in 14/20 (70%). Nine of ten relapsers, with distal eosinophilia, all showing a CYP2C19 rapid metabolizer genotype, regained histological remission after PPI dose intensification. CONCLUSIONS: Most PPI-REE patients remain in long-term remission on low-dose PPI therapy. CYP2C19 rapid metabolizer genotypes and rhinoconjunctivitis were independent predictors of loss of response to PPI, but patients frequently responded to PPI dose escalation.

Histological Response to Fluticasone Propionate in Patients With Eosinophilic Esophagitis Is Associated With Improved Functional Esophageal Mucosal Integrity.

OBJECTIVES: The esophageal mucosal integrity is impaired in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). We aimed to evaluate the effect of fluticasone propionate on inflammation and functional and structural markers of esophageal mucosal barrier integrity in adult patients with EoE. METHODS: In this prospective study, we included 15 EoE patients (median age (IQR), 43 (30-45) years). Patients underwent upper endoscopy before and after an 8-week course of swallowed fluticasone propionate 500 µg BID. Several parameters of esophageal mucosal barrier integrity were evaluated: esophageal electrical tissue impedance in vivo during endoscopy, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and transepithelial molecule flux in Ussing chambers using esophageal biopsy specimens, and intercellular spaces as a structural marker of permeability using electron microscopy. Esophageal eosinophils and mast cells were counted, and expression of inflammatory cytokines and barrier integrity proteins was investigated using qPCR. Esophageal symptoms and signs were also assessed. RESULTS: Peak eosinophil and mast cell counts decreased significantly after fluticasone propionate treatment. The esophageal mucosal integrity increased substantially during treatment, as shown by increased extracellular impedance and TER (both P<0.01) and decreased transepithelial molecule flux in Ussing chambers (P<0.05). Whereas expression of genes encoding for inflammatory cytokines (IL5, IL13, eotaxin-3, periostin, TSLP) decreased after treatment, expression of genes encoding for barrier integrity proteins (filaggrin and desmoglein-1) increased. CONCLUSIONS: Fluticasone propionate treatment decreases eosinophilic inflammation and improves the esophageal mucosal barrier integrity in adult EoE patients. Improvement of the mucosal barrier integrity correlates with normalization of expression of desmoglein-1 and filaggrin marker genes.

PPI-responsive esophageal eosinophilia cannot be distinguished from eosinophilic esophagitis by endoscopic signs.

BACKGROUND: Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic antigen-mediated disease histologically characterized by eosinophil-predominant inflammation. One-third of patients respond to proton pump inhibitor (PPI) treatment; this group is identified as having PPI-responsive esophageal eosinophilia (PPI-REE). If we could predict the response to PPIs on the basis of endoscopic signs, futile treatment efforts and additional endoscopies to assess treatment response can be prevented. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether endoscopic signs can distinguish PPI-REE from EoE. METHODS: Endoscopic images of 30 EoE and 30 PPI-REE patients were included. Baseline characteristics were compared between groups. Complete clinical remission after a PPI trial for at least 8 weeks was classified as PPI-REE. Per patient, at least three depersonalized images were incorporated into a slideshow. These images were scored by two experienced endoscopists according to a validated classification system. RESULTS: Characteristics were highly comparable between EoE and PPI-REE patients. Endoscopic signs were similar and did not enable differentiation between EoE and PPI-REE [presence of: rings (P=0.893), white exudates (P=0.209), furrows (P=0.371), edema (P=0.554), crepe paper esophagus (P=1.000), and strictures (P=0.071)]. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic signs at baseline endoscopy cannot distinguish EoE from PPI-REE before a PPI trial; the demographic and clinical characteristics in both groups are similar. Endoscopic features do not enable differentiation between PPI-REE and EoE.

Evaluating the endoscopic reference score for eosinophilic esophagitis: moderate to substantial intra- and interobserver reliability.

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: Recently the Endoscopic Reference Score (EREFS) for endoscopic assessment of eosinophilic esophagitis was introduced, with good interobserver agreement for most signs. The EREFS has not yet been evaluated by other investigators and intraobserver agreement has not been assessed. The aim of this study was to further validate the EREFS by assessing interobserver and intraobserver agreement of endoscopic signs in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: High-quality endoscopic images were made of the esophagus of 30 patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (age 36 years, range 23 - 46 years; 5 female), 6 of whom were in remission. At least three depersonalized images per patient were incorporated into a slideshow. Images were scored by four expert and four trainee endoscopists who were blinded to the patients' conditions. Interobserver agreement was assessed. After 4 weeks, the images were rescored in a different order to assess intraobserver agreement. RESULTS: Interobserver agreement was substantial for rings (κ 0.70), white exudates (κ 0.63), and crepe paper esophagus (κ 0.62), moderate for furrows (κ 0.49) and strictures (κ 0.54), and slight for edema (κ 0.12). Intraobserver agreement was substantial for rings (median κ 0.64, IQR 0.46 - 0.70), furrows (median κ 0.69, IQR 0.50 - 0.89), and crepe paper esophagus (median κ 0.69, IQR 0.62 - 0.83), moderate for white exudates (median κ 0.58, IQR 0.54 - 0.71) and strictures (median κ 0.54, IQR 0.33 - 0.70), and less than chance for edema (median κ 0.00, IQR 0.00 - 0.29). Inter- and intraobserver agreement was not substantially different between expert and trainee endoscopists. CONCLUSIONS: Using the EREFS, endoscopic signs of eosinophilic esophagitis were scored consistently by expert and trainee endoscopists.

Prevalence of esophageal motility abnormalities increases with longer disease duration in adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis.

BACKGROUND: During the natural course of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE), the risk for esophageal stricture formation increases. It remains unknown whether motility abnormalities in EoE also develop over time. We aimed to determine the relationship between disease duration, clinical characteristics, and manometric pattern of EoE patients. METHODS: We compared esophageal high-resolution manometry (HRM) measurements of 31 adult EoE patients with HRM data from 31 GERD controls and 31 healthy controls. Subsequently, we assessed differences in disease duration and clinical characteristics between EoE patients with normal and those with abnormal esophageal motility. KEY RESULTS: In EoE patients, peristaltic integrity was more frequently failed (12 vs 6%) or weak (27 vs 15%; p < 0.001) compared with healthy controls; however, this pattern was also seen in GERD controls (failed 14%, weak 27%). We found no differences regarding symptoms and signs of EoE between EoE patients with normal (42%) and abnormal motility (58%). However, disease duration was longer in EoE patients with abnormal motility than in those with normal motility (13 (6-18) years vs 4 (1-11) years; p < 0.05). In EoE, but not GERD, disease duration was identified as a risk factor for abnormal motility (OR for each year 1.142; 95% CI 1.004-1.299), and with longer disease duration, the prevalence of abnormal motility increased from 36% (duration 0-5 years) to 83% (duration ≥16 years; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES: Weak and failed peristaltic integrity are more often present in adult EoE patients than in healthy controls. The prevalence of manometric abnormalities in EoE patients increases with longer disease duration.

Proton pump inhibitors partially restore mucosal integrity in patients with proton pump inhibitor-responsive esophageal eosinophilia but not eosinophilic esophagitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Histologic analysis is used to distinguish patients with proton pump inhibitor-responsive eosinophilia (PPI-REE) from those with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). It is not clear whether these entities have different etiologies. Exposure to acid reflux can impair the integrity of the esophageal mucosal. We proposed that patients with EoE and PPI-REE might have reflux-induced esophageal mucosal damage that promotes transepithelial flux of allergens. We therefore assessed the integrity of the esophageal mucosal in these patients at baseline and after PPI. METHODS: We performed a prospective study of 16 patients with suspected EoE and 11 controls. Patients had dysphagia, endoscopic signs of EoE, and esophageal eosinophilia (>15 eosinophils/high-power field [eos/hpf]). All subjects underwent endoscopy at baseline; endoscopy was performed again on patients after 8 weeks of treatment with high-dose esomeprazole. After PPI treatment, patients were diagnosed with EoE (>10 eos/hpf; n = 8) or PPI-REE (≤10 eos/hpf; n = 8). We evaluated the structure (intercellular spaces) and function (electrical tissue impedance, transepithelial electrical resistance, transepithelial molecule flux) of the esophageal mucosal barrier. RESULTS: Compared with controls, electrical tissue impedance and transepithelial electrical resistance were reduced in patients with EoE (P < .001 and P < .001, respectively) and PPI-REE (P = .01 and P = .06, respectively), enabling transepithelial small-molecule flux. PPI therapy partially restored these changes in integrity and inflammation in patients with PPI-REE, but not in those with EoE. CONCLUSIONS: The integrity of the esophageal mucosa is impaired in patients with EoE and PPI-REE, allowing transepithelial transport of small molecules. PPI therapy partially restores mucosal integrity in patients with PPI-REE, but not in those with EoE. Acid reflux might contribute to transepithelial allergen flux in patients with PPI-REE. Trialregister.nl number: NTR3480.

Oesophageal baseline impedance values are decreased in patients with eosinophilic oesophagitis.

BACKGROUND: Gastro-oesophageal reflux has been suggested to play a role in eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoO). Oesophageal acid exposure decreases baseline intraluminal impedance, a marker of mucosal integrity, in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD). OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess oesophageal baseline impedance levels in EoO patients and to investigate their relationship with oesophageal acid exposure. METHODS: Ambulatory 24-h pH-impedance monitoring was performed in 11 EoO patients and in 11 healthy controls with matched oesophageal acid exposure. We assessed baseline impedance levels in the distal, mid-, and proximal oesophageal impedance channels. RESULTS: BASELINE IMPEDANCE LEVELS IN EOO PATIENTS WERE MARKEDLY LOWER COMPARED TO CONTROLS IN THE DISTAL OESOPHAGUS (MEDIAN (INTERQUARTILE RANGE): 988 (757-1978) vs. 2259 (1767-2896) Ω, p = 0.015), mid-oesophagus (1420 (836-2164) vs. 2614 (2374-3879) Ω, p = 0.003), and proximal oesophagus (1856 (1006-2625) vs. 2868 (2397-3439) Ω, p = 0.005). Whereas baseline impedance decreased from proximal to distal in healthy subjects (p = 0.037), no such gradient was seen in EoO patients (p = 0.123). CONCLUSIONS: Throughout the oesophagus, baseline impedance values are decreased in EoO patients, indicating impaired mucosal integrity. Our findings suggest that factors other than acid reflux are the cause of low baseline impedance in EoO.